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A 

TREATISE  ON  ART 

IN  THREE  PARTS 


(.ONSISTING  OF 


ESSAYS  ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  EVE, 
PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  COMPOSPITON, 
AND  LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


HY  JOHN  RURNET,  F.  R.  S. 


THE  WHOT.E  I LTATSTR ATE1>  ItV  I’HOTO-ENGT A'/TNCSi  FLOU  ORIGIN/T.  ETCHINGS 

OF  C>:rERRATEI>  IICIURES 

From  the  Italian,  Venetian,  Fl^mishj,  Dutch  (irtd  English  Schools. 


KDITKI)  HY 


FRANK  V.  CHAMBERS 


I’rBI.ISHEH  or  “the  CAJIERa"  AM)  “ IHT.EETIN  01'  i’HOTOG  U AI’H  Y ' ’ 


PHILADELPHIA 

FRANK  V.  CHAMBERS,  PUBLISHER 
1913 


’ ' I 


) 


TRINTET)  BY  CHAMBERS  PRESS 
PHIEADELPHIA 


AN  ESSAY 


ON 

THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE 


ILLUSTRATED  RY  PHOTO  ENGRAVINGS 
AND  ETCHINGS 


BY  JOHN  BURNET,  F.  R.  S. 


“ Visual  impressions  are  those  which  in  infancy  furnish  the  principal  means  of  developing  the  powers  of 
the  understanding:  it  is  to  this  class  of  principals  that  the  philosopher  resorts  for  the  most  apt  and 
perspicuous  illustrations  of  his  reasoning,  and  it  is  also  from  the  same  inexhaustible  fountain  that  the  poet 
draws  his  most  pleasing  and  graphic  as  well  as  his  sublimest  imagery.” 

I)H.  ROGET’s  RRIIXiEWAIEK  TREATISE. 


PHILADELPHIA 

FRANK  V.  CHAMBERS,  PUBLISHER 
1913 


PUBLISHER’S  ANNOUNCEMENT 


In  reprinting  lJurnet’s  famous  Art  Essays,  we  have  done  this 
with  the  idea  of  placing  the  book  before  students  and  lovers  of 
Art  and  marketing  it  at  a price  within  the  reach  of  those  of 
moderate  means.  The  illustrations  have  been  taken  from  the 
original  editions  published  in  1822,  182(5  and  1837  and  the  text 
re-set  from  new  types.  No  alterations  have  been  made  in  Burnet’s 
phraseology  and  it  is  verbatim. 

Our  original  edition  we  secured  after  many  difficulties,  as  the 
book  has  been  out  of  print  for  so  many  years,  and  it  is  with 
gratification  that  we  launch  this  edition  to  an  appreciate  public. 

Frank  X.  Cha:mi?i:i{s. 


Philadelphia,  September.  1913. 


, '.y*  •'■"  •'<:■: I :■«  '^•^■••'^•'?  ■1'''>';-I.t.'’.  ■ ■■':  •'  -'Mj/i'  '■’•••.'  ••  • ' ' . . if/’ •' 

•/'■  ■:■:  I,  ,7,^  .;■•  ,^7.'  7 . ,:/y(  •'■■.  . ' •>  . •>  ;.;  ■,.  , ; ; • 


PREFACE 


In  prefacing  a work  of  this  brief  description,  where  so  many  branches  of 
the  Art  of  Painting  are  introduced  with  little  more  than  an  enumeration  of  their 
component  parts,  I ought  to  apologize,  in  the  hrst  instance,  for  thus  attempting 
to  convey  atn-  information  which  can  be  cai-ried  int(j  practical  usefulness  in  so 
small  a compass;  my  motive  for  so  doing  was  to  gi\e,  if  possible,  an  insight 
into  the  intricacies  of  the  Art,  without  distracting  the  attention  of  the  I’eader 
h}"  a multitude  of  examples,  whose  union  often  destroys  the  sti'ong  impression 
of  a single  illustration.  Though  the  varieties  of  painting  are  endless,  yet  the 
properties  of  which  these  vaiteties  are  comjiosed  are,  as  in  music,  few  in 
numher;  I have  endeavored,  therefore,  to  notice  oidy  the  leading  [)rinciples 
which  must  be  known,  and  which  by  reflection  and  observation  can  be  extended 
to  any  infinite  series  of  ramifications.  The  same  simple  rules  which  should 
regulate  the  instruction  of  beginners,  I have  endea\ ored  to  iioint  out  as 
existing  in  the  highest  departments  of  the  Art,  communicating  by  their 
presence  that  value  which  a ^’ein  of  gold  imj)arts  to  a mass  of  inferior  matter. 
To  some  it  may  appear  that  the  subject  is  too  physically  ti’eated.  I have  been 
actuated  so  to  do  by  the  custom  of  the  present  time,  and  surely  every  one 
ought  to  know  something  of  the  construction  of  that  insti-ument  he  is  in 
possession  of,  and  of  its  operations  on  the  mind.  In  what  I have  advanced. 
I have  quoted  the  o{)inions  of  the  best  authors  to  coi-i'ohorate  and  strengthen 
my  own,  thereby  hoping  to  render  an  Art  by  which  civilized  societv  is  so 
highly  embellished,  more  known  and  apj)reciated. 

JOHN  lUTRNE'r. 


March  2.  1837 


CON  T E N T S 

Page 

Measurement 2 

Form 3 

Perspective 3 

Lines 

Diminution *5 

Angles 7 

Circles  3 

Aerial  Perspective 16 

Chiaro  Oscuro 20 

Invention 24 

Composition 28 

Arrangement 36 

H ARMONY 39 

Form 39 

Chiaro  Oscuro 42 

Harmony  of  Color 44 

Studying  from  Nature 46 


) 


LIST  OF  PLATES 

Facing  I’age 

Plate  1 18 

Plate  II "24 

Plate  III 25 

Plate  IV 8(5 

Plate  IV* 87 

Plate  V 42 

Plate  VI 48 

Plate  VII. 


50 


AN  ESSAY 


ON 

THE  EDUCATION  OE  THE  EYE 


II V 

JOHN  BUKNET,  E.  R.  S. 


A country  so  largely  connected  with  manufactures  as  this  is, 
we  cannot  but  wonder  why  the  education  of  the  eye  has  not 
been  more  generally  cultivated ; obseiwing,  as  is  also  the  case 
with  the  ear,  that  its  education  in  after-life  rarely  gives  the 
possessor  those  advantages  which  result  from  a proper  direc- 
tion having  been  given  in  youth ; nor  do  I see  why  drawing  should  not  accom- 
pany the  elements  of  reading  and  writing,  the  complicated  forms  of  the 
letters  in  many  languages  presenting  a more  serious  obstacle  than  what  is 
required  in  the  rudiments  of  drawing ; and  I have  no  doid)t  but  that  a very 
short  time  would  be  sufficient  to  enable  a scholar  to  draw  objects  with 
tolerable  correctness.  Without  this  education,  not  only  arc  the  most  valuable 
advantages  often  lost,^  but  the  mind  is  deprived  of  one  of  its  chief  sources 
of  correct  information,  and  the  hand  remains  in  a manner  paralyzed  and 
unable  to  record  what  the  eye  takes  cognizance  of ; whereas,  when  they 
advance  in  mutual  contact  through  a course  of  early  instruction,  this  diffi- 
culty is  overcome.  This  ready  execution  of  the  hand  is  to  be  acquired 

’ I.ocke,  whose  attention  was  turned  to  this  branch  of  education,  says,  “when  he  can 
write  well  and  quick,  I think  it  may  be  convenient  not  only  to  continue  the  exercise  of  his 
hand  in  writing,  but  also  to  improve  the  use  of  it  further  in  drawing,  a thing  very  useful 
to  gentlemen  on  several  occasions,  but  especially  if  he  travels,  as  that  which  helps  a man 
often  to  express  in  a few  lines  well  put  together  what  a whole  sheet  of  paper  in  writing 
would  not  be  able  to  represent  and  make  intelligible.  How  many  buildings  may  a man 
see,  how  many  machines  and  habits  meet  with,  the  ideas  whereof  would  be  easily  retained 
and  communicated  by  a little  skill  in  drawing,  which  being  committed  to  words  are  in 
danger  of  being  lost,  or  at  best  but  ill  retained  in  the  most  exact  descriptions?  I do 


2 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


only  by  constant  pi'actice,  for,  however  readily  the  eye  may  perceive  the 
form  of  an  object,  tbe  power  of  delineating  it  on  the  paper  or  canvas  is 
where  the  apparent  difficulty  lies.  It  is  here  where  its  correctness  is  put 
to  the  test.  How  much  constant  practice  perfects  this  chain  of  com- 
munication between  the  eye  and  the  hand  may  be  proved  by  the  facility 
with  which  a person  acquires  the  power  of  writing  in  the  dark,  or  with  his 
eyes  shut.  This  quick  communication,  however,  is  not  to  be  purchased  at 
the  expense  of  correctness,  which  ought  to  be  the  greatest  consideration ; 
for  if  the  eye,  or  ear,  falls  into  a loose,  imperfect  method  of  study,  the  student 
finds  the  greatest  difficulty  in  getting  rid  of  such  unprofitable  groundwork. 
In  advocating  the  advantages  of  this  branch  of  education,  it  is  not  my 
province  to  raise  up  chimeras,  or  what  might  be  considered  sufficient  reasons 
for  deferring  it.  Those  who  have  the  instruction  of  youth  entrusted  to 
them,  I am  confident,  would  find  it  rather  an  assistance,  as  it  might  be 
given  either  as  an  amusement  or  as  a reward  of  merit ; and,  in  order  to 
put  it  in  the  power  of  any  master  to  instruct,  I shall  endeavor  to  proceed 
in  the  simplest  manner,  and  with  as  few  diagrams  as  the  subject  renders 
necessary. 


^MEASUREMENT. 

To  teacb  the  eye  to  measure  the  distance  between  one  object  and  another 
ought  to  be  tbe  first  proceeding.  The  forms  of  the  lines  which  bound  these 
spaces,  the  shapes  contained  or  excluded  by  such  lines,  ought  to  follow, 
for,  as  the  eye  must  have  something  tangible  to  work  upon,  it  ought  to  be 


Fig.  1. 


simple  and  evident.  I should,  therefore,  commence  by  a series  of  dots  or 
points,  first  two,  then  three,  four  and  five ; also  the  angles  made  by  drawing 
lines  from  each  of  several  points.  A pair  of  compasses  will  enable  any  one 

not  mean  that  I would  have  your  son  a perfect  painter;  to  be  that  to  any  tolerable  degree 
will  require  more  time  than  a young  gentleman  can  spare  from  his  other  improvements 
of  greater  moment;  hut  so  much  insight  into  perspective  and  skill  in  drawing  as  will 
enable  him  to  reiiresent  tolerably  on  paper  any  thing  he  sees,  may,  I think,  be  got  in 
a little  time.” — Locke’s  Thoughts  Concerning  Education. 

“With  regard  to  the  practice  of  drawing,  it  will  be  proper  to  incite  the  scholars 
to  industry  by  showing  in  other  books  the  use  of  the  art,  and  informing  them  how  much 
it  assists  the  apprehension  and  relieves  the  memory,  and  if  they  are  obliged  sometimes 
to  write  descriptions  of  engines,  utensils,  or  any  complex  pieces  of  workmanship,  they 
will  more  fully  a])prchend  the  necessity  of  an  expedient  which  so  happily  supplies  the 
defects  of  language,  and  enables  the  eye  to  receive  what  cannot  be  conveyed  to  the  mind 
any  other  way.” — Preface  to  the  Preceptor. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


3 


to  compare  their  correctness  with  the  original,  for,  until  a pupil  can 
accomplish  pretty  correctly  these  preliminaries,  it  is  useless  to  hasten  to 
more  complicated  matters. 

FORM. 

As  all  forms  contain  more  or  less  portions  of  a triangle,  square  or 
circle,  the  eye  must  be  taught  to  comprehend  and  imitate  such  objects  in 
their  simple  forms,  in  order  to  fit  it  for  the  pui'pose  of  seeing  such  qualities 
when  mixed  and  combined  with  more  complicated  figures. 

I would  now  recommend  these  forms  to  be  cut  out  in  paper,  and 
viewed  in  various  situations,  being  set  upright,  and  also  viewed  in  a 
horizontal  position,  that  the  eye  may  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  figures  in  all  their  variety  of  shapes,  and  with  the  causes  of  their 
alterations  in  form. 


I would  also  recommend  the  pupil  to  draw  from  a cube  and  a ball, 
that  the  eye  may  become  early  accustomed  to  draw  from  the  real  objects, 
in  place  of  flat  surfaces,  which  will  give  him  a power  in  drawing  from 
Nature  unattainable  by  any  other  method. 


Fig.  5.  Fig.  6.  Fig.  7. 


PERSPECTIVE. 

Many  have  been  deterred  from  attempting  to  learn  drawing  from  the 
dread  of  encountering  so  formidable  a department  of  the  art  as  perspective ; 
whereas,  if  it  is  stripped  of  its  geometrical  and  mathematical  intricacies, 
it  will  be  found  a very  simple  matter,  and  easy  of  comprehension."  Per- 
spective, as  the  word  denotes  (being  a compound  of  the  Latin  words 

= Long  calculations  or  complex  diagrams  aflfright  the  timorous  and  unexperienced 
from  a second  view,  but  if  we  have  skill  sulRcient  to  analyze  them  into  simple  principles, 
it  will  be  discovered  that  our  fear  was  groundless.  Divide  and  conquer  is  a prineiple 
equally  just  in  science  as  in  policy.  Complication  is  a species  of  confederacy  which, 
while  it  continues  united,  bids  defiance  to  the  most  active  and  vigorous  intellect,  but 


4 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


per,  through,  and  specto,  to  view),  is  the  art  of  drawing  the  several 
objects  as  they  appear  when  traced  upon  a glass,  or  transparent  medium; 
the  art  of  drawing  in  perspective,  therefore,  is  nothing  more  than  repre- 
senting the  various  objects  subject  to  those  laws  which  regulate  their 
appearance  in  Nature.® 


LINES. 

All  lines  are  subject  to  an  alteration  in  their  appearance,  except  two, 
a perpendicular  line  and  a horizontal  one ; and  lines  are  more  or  less 
diminished  in  length  according  as  they  depart  from  the  parallel  of  the 
base  line ; for  example,  if  a person  holds  a pen  or  a stick  parallel  with 
the  eyes,  and  gradually  turns  it  around,  he  will  see  it  gradually  become 
shorter,  until  it  assumes  a mere  spot  when  it  is  placed  with  the  point 
directly  toward  the  eye,  as  it  then  covers  what  is  termed  the  point  of  sight, 
being  a point  immediately  opposite  the  observer’s  eye,  and  upon  the 
horizontal  line,  which  is  always  of  the  height  of  the  eyes  of  the  spectator; 
and,  as  it  is  turned  around,  it  will  describe  innumerable  points  along  the 
whole  line.  These  are  termed  accidental  points,  and  vary  according  as  the 

of  which  every  ineri)l)er  is  separately  weak,  and  which  may  therefore  be  quickly  subdued 
if  it  can  be  broken.  The  chief  art  of  learning,  as  Locke  has  observed,  is  to  attempt  but 
little  at  a time;  the  widest  excursions  of  the  mind  are  made  hy  short  flights  frequently 
repeated." — Doctor  Johnson. 

® It  was  in  the  sixteenth  century  that  Perspective,  a new  branch  of  optics,  was 
revived,  or  rather  invented;  this  is  more  a business  of  (/eometri/  than  optics,  and  is  indeed 
more  an  art  than  a science;  but  since  it  is  derived  from  optical  principles,  and  as  the 
use  of  it  is  to  give  pleasure  to  the  eye  by  a just  representation  of  natural  objects, 
I would  do  wrong  not  to  give  a short  account  of  its  rise  and  progress.  The  art  of 
perspective  owes  its  birth  to  painting,  and  particularly  to  that  branch  of  it  which  was 
employed  in  the  decoration  of  the  theater,  where  landscapes  were  prinicpally  introduced, 
and  wliich  would  have  looked  unnatural  and  horrid  if  the  size  of  the  objects  had  not  been 
pretty  nearly  proportioned  to  their  distance  from  the  eye.  We  learn  from  Vitruvius 
that  Agatharchus,  instructed  by  Eschylus,  was  the  first  who  wrote  upon  the  subject,  and 
that  afterward  the  principles  of  this  art  were  more  distinctly  taught  by  Democritus  and 
Anaxagoras,  the  disciples  of  Agatharchus.  Of  the  theory  of  this  art,  as  described  by 
them,  we  know  nothing,  since  none  of  their  writings  have  escajred  the  general  wreck  that 
was  made  of  ancient  literature  in  the  dark  ages  of  Europe.  However,  the  revival  of 
painting  in  Italy  was  acconqtanied  with  a revival  of  this  art.  The  first  person  who 
attempted  to  lay  down  the  rules  of  perspective  was  Pietro  del  Borgo,  an  Italian.  He 
supposed  objects  to  be  placed  beyond  a transparent  tablet,  and  endeavored  to  trace  the 
images  wliich  rays  of  light  emitted  from  them  would  make  upon  it,  but  we  do  not  know 
what  success  he  had  in  this  attempt,  because  the  book  which  he  wrote  upon  the  subject 
is  not  now  extant.  It  is,  however,  very  much  commended  by  the  famous  Egnazio  Dante; 
and  upon  the  principles  of  Borgo,  Albert  Durer  constructed  a machine,  by  which  he  could 
trace  the  jierspective  appearance  of  objects.  Balthazar  Perussi  studied  the  writings  of 
Borgo,  and  endeavored  to  make  them  more  intelligible;  to  him  we  owe  the  discovery  of 
points  of  distance,  to  which  all  lines  that  would  make  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the 
ground  line  are  drawn.  A little  time  after,  Guido  Ubaldi,  another  Italian,  found  that 
alt  lines  that  are  parallel  to  one  another,  if  they  be  inclined  to  the  ground  line,  converge 
to  some  point  in  the  horizontal  line,  and  that  through  this  point  also  a line  drawn  from 
the  eye,  jiarallel  to  them,  will  jiass.  These  principles  put  together  enabled  him  to  make 
out  a pretty  complete  theory  of  perspective." — Priestley’s  Optics. 

Since  then  the  Jesnifs’  Perspective,  Brook  Taylor's,  Malton's,  and  others,  have 
rendered  the  most  difficult  and  intricate  diagrams  clear  and  comprehensible. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


5 


lines  run  more  or  less  at  right  angles  from  the  base  line.  Lines  also  vary 
according  as  they  are  situated  above  or  below  the  observer’s  eye;  for 
instance,  if  a book  is  held  up  horizontally  before  the  eye,  the  under  cover 
will  be  seen  when  held  above,  and  the  lines  of  its  sides  appear  to  run  down 


Fig.  8. 


Horizontal 


line. 


to  a point  on  the  horizontal  line.  When  underneath  the  eye,  the  upper 
cover  will  be  seen,  and  the  lines  describing  the  sides  appear  to  rise  up  to 
the  horizontal  line.*  Before  proceeding  further,  for  the  better  understand- 
ing the  several  lines  already  mentioned,  and  showing  how  they  are  affected, 
I shall  give  an  explanatory  figure. 

The  above  represents  a cupboard  with  folding  doors.  Being  placed 
immediately  before  the  eye,  the  sides  appear  to  rise  and  descend  to  the 
point  of  sight,  a ; also  the  door  b,  from  its  being  opened  at  right  angles 
with  the  base  line,  while  the  lines  of  the  door  c appear  to  run  to  the  acci- 
dental point  D.  This  point  will  vary  its  situation  according  as  the  door 
is  more  or  less  opened,  which  explains  what  are  termed  accidental  points. 


Fig.  9. 


* The  truth  of  this  may  he  also  deary  proved  if  a person  holds  up  a piece  of  glass 
on  which  a series  of  lines  are  drawn,  radiating  from  the  center;  for  by  looking  through 
it  either  u]>  a street,  avenue,  or  long  room,  he  will  perceive  those  lines  of  the  pavement, 
buildings,  etc.,  which  are  at  right  angles  with  the  base  line,  fall  in  with  and  cover  many 
of  the  lines,  so  drawn  on  the  glass,  for  as  they  all  run  to  the  point  of  sight,  they  will 
of  necessity  converge,  since  the  spaces  between  them  diminish  as  they  recede  from  the 
spectator. 


6 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


DIMINUTION. 

All  objects  diminish  in  size  as  the  spectator  departs  from  them,  hence 
two  parallel  lines  seem  to  approach  each  other  as  they  recede  from  the 
eye ; and  this  diminution  will  appear  more  or  less  sudden,  according  as 
they  commence  from  a near  point,  or  one  more  removed.  For  example,  if 
the  hand  is  held  near  the  eye,  it  w’ill  intercept  a larger  space  than  when 
held  out  at  arm’s  length. 

Objects  diminish  in  an  increased  ratio  until  removed  to  a certain  dis- 
tance, when  the  diminution  appears  less  violent.  This  may  be  made  apparent 
by  the  following  diagram : 


ft 

Let  the  line  a represent  the  spectator,  and  the  line  b represent  a line 
of  pavement.  The  circular  line  c,  which  cuts  througli  the  visual  rays®  as 
they  approach  the  eye,  will  show  the  diminished  ratio  as  the  squares  become 
more  distant.  And,  as  they  have  to  be  represented  upon  a plane  surface, 
their  proportions  will  be  as  the  divisions  on  n.  They  will,  therefore,  present 
the  following  appearance  to  the  eve. 


Fig.  11. 


When,  therefore,  objects  are  commenced  too  near,  they  appear  out  of 
proportion  with  the  other  objects  in  the  work,  and,  though  true  according 
to  rule,  appear  false  with  regard  to  their  effect  upon  the  eye  of  the 


‘ Imaginary  lines  reaching  from  various  objects  to  the  eye. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


7 


spectator.  This  is  termed  violent  or  sudden  perspective,  to  avoid  which 
a point  of  distance  is  chosen  that  will  look  agreeable.  The  breadth  of 
the  squares  being  determined  by  the  diagonal  line  running  to  the  point  of 
distance  where  it  cuts  through  the  lines  of  the  pavement,  which  run  to  the 
point  of  sight,  the  farther  this  point  is  removed  the  more  level  the  ground 
will  appear,  as  represented  in  Fig.  12. 


Point  of  sight.  Fig, 


What  we  have  hitherto  said  more  immediately  applies  to  parallel  per- 
spective, so  named  from  all  the  lines  which  intersect  those  running  to  the 
point  of  sight,  being  parallel  with  the  base  line.  When,  however,  a square, 
or  any  cubical  form,  is  viewed  at  the  angle,  the  two  sides  will  not  appear 
to  vanish  in  the  point  of  sight,  but  run  to  two  points  on  the  horizontal 
line,  called  vanishing  points;  and  this  mode  of  treating  the  subject  is 
called  angular  perspective.  Now,  these  two  points  are  always  at  an  equal 
distance  from  each  other,  which  is  one-fourth  of  a circle.  Therefore,  if 
one  is  determined  upon,  the  other  is  easily  found ; for,  as  one  departs  from 
the  point  of  sight,  the  other  appears  to  approach  it,  as  any  one  may 
perceive  by  turning  around  a sheet  of  paper,  or  a book,  from  a situation 
where  one  side  is  parallel  with  the  base  line,  until  it  is  viewed  upon  tbe 
angle.  The  cause,  of  this,  perhaps,  may  be  more  clearly  explained  by  tbe 
following  figure : 


Fig.  11. 


8 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


Suppose  the  circle  to  represent  the  line  of  the  horizon,  which  is  the 
true  representation  of  it  when  viewed  out  at  sea,  or  where  no  obstruction 
intercepts  it,  for  then  the  water,  coming  in  contact  with  the  sky,  presents 
a circular  horizontal  line.  If  a person,  therefore,  was  placed  at  n,  and, 
looking  to  the  point  a,  the  line  c would  be  parallel  with  the  base,  being  at 
right  angles  with  a,  and,  consequently,  occupying  one-fourth  of  a circle ; 
but,  if  he  turned  in  the  direction  of  b,  then  a and  c would  become  vanish- 
ing points,  though  still  at  equal  distances  upon  the  horizontal  line,  and 
would  appear  thus : 


In  a panorama,  which  is  a circular  canvas,  viewed  from  the  center, 
this  mode  of  measuring  the  various  points  is  found  to  agree  perfectly  with 
the  natural  representation  of  objects. 


If  any  one  takes  a drinking  glass  or  cup  in  his  hand,  with  the  mouth 
of  it  toward  him,  and  gradually  turns  it  from  him,  carefully  watching  it 
passing  through  all  the  elliptical  forms,  until  the  brim  becomes  a straight 
line  in  appearance,  he  will  have  a correct  idea  how  it  is  that  columns,  or 
other  circular  objects,  assume  an  oval  shape  at  the  top  or  bottom,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  below  or  above  the  eye.  Or,  if  he  holds  the  cup  with  the 
side  downward,  and  turns  the  mouth  gradually  around  toward  him,  he  will 
perceive  the  cause  why  arches,  or  circular  gateways,  appear  elliptical  in 
a side  view.  It  arises  from  parts  of  the  circle  being  more  foreshortened 
than  other  parts ; that  is  to  say,  those  parts  which  come  more  in  the  line 
of  the  visual  rays.  For  example,  let  a circle  be  divided  into  equal  parts, 
and  suppose  the  eye  of  the  spectator  placed  at  a,  those  parts  which  lie 
in  the  direction  of  the  rays  of  vision,  b,  occupy  less  space  on  the  line  c, 
which  cuts  through  them,  and,  when  drawn  upon  a flat  surface,  would 
present  an  appearance  like  n,  Fig.  16.  Or  imagine  a line  drawn  through 
the  center,  parallel  with  the  base  line,  and  whicb  accordingly  retains  its 
exact  length.  Those  portions  of  the  circular  line  which  lie  in  the  same 
direction  are  less  diminished,  while  the  other  parts,  lying  in  an  opposite 
direction,  naturally  become  subject  to  the  greatest  degree  of  foreshortening, 
as  in  Fig.  17. 

Having  now  gone  through  the  several  forms  of  a triangle,  square  and 
circle,  I shall  here  recapitulate  the  influence  of  perspective  upon  their 


Fig,  14. 


o 


CIRCLES. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


9 


several  lines.  We  have  seen  that  lines  are  shortened  according  as  they 
fall  in  the  direction  of  the  visual  rays,  and  retain  their  original  length 
only  when  they  cut  them  at  right  angles.  Now,  this  takes  place  wherever 
the  objects  are  placed,  whether  near  the  foreground  or  in  the  distance, 
the  eye  of  the  spectator  being  a point  from  which  imaginary  lines  radiate 
in  any  direction,  and  which  are  termed  rays  of  vision,  and  along  which 
imaginary  lines  all  objects  are  received  upon  the  retina;®  and,  though  in 


Fig.  15. 


painting  we  are  obliged  to  delineate  everything  upon  a flat  surface,  yet, 
properly  speaking,  the  line  which  cuts  through  these  rays  at  equal  dis- 
tance from  the  eye  is  circular.  We  have  seen  also  that  all  objects  diminish 
in  size  according  to  their  distance  from  the  spectator,  and  that  this 
diminution  is  more  or  less  sudden  according  to  the  closeness  of  the  spectator 
to  the  object.  Upon  this  matter  the  taste  and  judgment  of  the  artist 
is  shown,  because,  though  true  according  to  Nature,  yet  it  may  be  repre- 


Fig.  17. 


° Kepler,  who  in  1600  was  the  discoverer  of  the  seat  of  vision  on  the  retina,  says  as 
to  the  images  of  objects  being  inverted  in  the  eye,  it  is  the  business  of  the  mind  to  trace 
the  progress  of  them  through  the  pupil,  and  refer  them  to  those  places  of  the  objects 
themselves  from  which  they  seem  to  have  proceeded. 


10 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


sented  with  a very  bad  effect,  and  one  figure  of  a group,  or  one  column  of 
a row,  may  be  rendered  preposterously  large,  so  as  to  offend  the  e}^e,  which, 
though  at  all  times  pleased  with  the  truth,  yet  will  be  more  delighted  when 
that  truth  is  rendered  agreeable/  When  this  distortion  takes  place  in 
reality,  we  naturally  change  our  position,  until  the  eye  is  satisfied;  but  in 
painting,  the  whole  being  a flat  surface,  we  change  our  position  in  vain. 

We  have  also  seen  that  all  horizontal  surfaces  of  objects  diminish  in 
breadth  as  they  approach  the  horizontal  line,  and  regain  their  true  width 
when  they  depart  from  it,  either  by  being  immediately  above  the  eye  or 
directly  under  it,  as  may  be  perceived  by  the  following  diagram : 


Fig.  18. 


HorizoDta]  line. 


Now,  this  rule  applies  to  all  flat  surfaces,  whether  approaching  the 
horizontal  line,  in  consequence  of  their  distance  from  the  spectator,  or 
from  being  placed  at  different  degrees  of  height;  for,  if  they  reach  the 
eye  in  the  direction  of  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  which  is  equidistant  between 
a perpendicular  and  a horizontal  line,  they  will  be  diminished  in  apparent 
width  exactly  one-half.  If  they  are  viewed  at  a greater  or  smaller  angle, 
they  will  increase  or  diminish  in  the  same  degree.  This  is  also  the  cause 
why  surfaces  of  objects  whose  lines  are  at  right  angles  with  their  base 

’’  Reynolds,  in  a note  upon  Fresno;/’ s Art  of  Paint  in;/,  says,  “The  rules  of 
perspective,  as  well  as  all  other  rules,  may  be  injudiciously  applied,  and  it  must  l)e 
acknowledged  that  a misapplication  of  them  is  but  too  frecpiently  found  even  in  the  works 
of  the  most  considerable  artists.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  a figure  on  the  foreground 
represented  near  twice  the  size  of  another  which  is  supposed  to  he  removed  but  a few  feet 
behind  it ; this,  though  true  according  to  rule,  will  appear  monstrous.  This  error  proceeds 
from  ])lacing  the  j)oint  of  distance  too  near  the  point  of  sight,  by  which  means  the 
diminution  of  objects  is  so  sudden  as  to  appear  unnatural,  unless  you  stand  so  near  the 
picture  as  the  point  of  distance  requires,  which  would  he  too  near  for  the  eye  to 
comprehend  the  whole  jiicture;  whereas  if  the  point  of  distance  is  removed  so  far  as 
the  spectator  may  be  sup])osed  to  stand  in  order  to  see  commodio\isly,  and  take  within 
his  view  the  whole,  the  figures  behind  would  then  suffer  under  no  such  violent  diminution.” 


EDTTCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


11 


line  increase  in  length  as  tliej  depart  from  the  point  of  sight,  either  to 
the  left  hand  or  to  the  right,  as  may  be  seen  by  turning  the  diagram 
around,  and  making  the  line  on  which  the  eye  of  the  spectator  is  placed  a 
horizontal  line  in  place  of  a perpendicular.  This  may  appear  too  much 
a repetition  of  what  has  already  been  said  respecting  the  cause  of  objects 
becoming  foreshortened ; but,  as  it  is  the  base  on  which  all  rules  for  true 
drawing  are  founded,  it  must  be  viewed  in  every  position,  that  the  student 
ma}^  thoroughly  comprehend  it. 

When  the  mind  of  the  student  is  informed  of  the  various  causes  oper- 
ating upon  lines  so  as  to  change  their  appearance  to  the  eye,  let  him 
look  abroad  upon  natural  objects,  and  contemplate  the  various  changes 
produced  in  their  forms  by  their  situation,  so  that  his  eye  may  become 
familiar  with  those  alterations  in  form,  and  his  mind  enriched  by  a variety 
of  examples ; thus  making  Nature  furnish  him  with  a thousand  diagrams, 
which  he  ought  to  draw  and  write  down  his  remarks  upon.  He  will,  by 
this  method,  not  only  educate  his  eye,  but  improve  his  mind  at  the  same 
time,  the  study  of  drawing  being  intimately  connected  with  observation 
and  reflection. 

Having  now  endeavored  to  explain  the  leading  principles  of  per- 
spective, I shall  proceed  to  put  them  into  practical  application  ; but  I must 
premise  that  it  is  an  essential  requisite,  before  proceeding  to  delineate 
any  object,  that  we  make  ourselves  thoroughly  acquainted  with  its  general 
character,  otherwise  the  eye  cannot  convey  to  us  its  image  distinctly ; 
neither  can  the  hand  render  it  with  energy  or  precision.  Let  us  take,  for 
example,  the  human  face,  the  component  parts  of  which  every  one  is 
acquainted  with ; yet  the  niceties  of  distinction  in  the  several  features  few 
eyes  can  perceive,  or  render  with  perfect  accuracy.  This  oftcner  arises 
from  a want  of  due  examination,  so  as  to  be  able  to  guide  tlie  eye,  than 
from  any  deficiency  in  the  eye  itself ; hence  we  perceive,  in  the  drawings 
of  children  and  rude  nations,  a profile  with  the  eye  represented  as  if 
viewed  in  front,  or  a full  view  of  the  face  with  the  nose  as  if  seen  in  profile. 
To  avoid  such  incongruities,  therefore,  the  eye  must  be  taught  to  see  the 
changes  which  take  place,  and  the  mind  be  made  acquainted  with  the  causes 
of  such  change.*  In  illustration  of  which,  if  we  take  a plaster  cast  or 
mask  of  the  face,  such  as  is  represented  in  Fig.  19,  and  draw  a line  down 
the  center,  from  the  forehead  to  the  chin,  we  perceive,  when  viewed  directly 

® Mengs,  speaking  of  design,  which  he  defines  as  coni])rehending  the  outline,  or  the 
circumference  of  things,  including  the  jiroportion  of  their  length,  breadth  and  form, 
says,  “This  part  is  composed  of  two  principal  divisions,  the  knowledge  of  the  proper  form 
of  a thing,  and  the  manner  of  seeing  it;  the  one  depending  upon  geometry,  the  other 
upon  optics:  the  first  implies  a knowledge  of  their  optical  ai)pearance  from  the  view 
presented  to  the  sight;  this  pictorial  geometry  is  necessary  to  enable  the  student  to 
delineate  with  correctness  and  feeling,  and  which  can  only  be  acquired  by  careful  habit 
of  seeing  and  drawing  with  attention.  This  is  the  fundamental  basis  of  design,  without 
which  it  will  be  impossible  to  render  theoretic  knowledge  available:  for,  as  in  painting, 
we  must  express  the  forms  which  we  see  in  Nature  as  tliey  present  themselves  to  our 
sight,  and  as  their  beauty  depends  upon  that  little,  more  or  less;  which  decides  their 
character,  so  a knowledge  of  that  variation  enables  us  to  give  a true  representation.” 


12 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


in  front,  that  it  presents  a straiglit  perpendicular  line,  as  in  No.  1,  though 
actually  full  of  undulations  from  passing  over  the  entire  profile;  but,  as 
these  projections  and  recedings  of  the  line  are  immediately  under  each 

Fig.  19. 

No.  1.  No.  2.  5- 


ether,  they  reach  the  eye  in  the  same  manner  as  if  a string  was  held  up 
before  the  mask  in  a perpendicular  direction.  If,  however,  the  mask  is 
viewed  when  turned  around  halfway  between  a profile  and  front  face,  as 
in  No.  2,  those  parts  of  the  line  which  recede  or  project  will  assume  exactly 
one-half  of  their  true  character  and  projection;  while  in  the  profile.  No.  3, 
the  line  acquires  its  exact  similitude,  from  its  being  undisturbed  by  those 
laws  which  regulate  perspective.  If  we  were  to  proceed  and  examine  every 
feature  in  the  same  manner,  we  should  find  that  the  same  laws  lead  us  into 
a correct  view  of  the  alterations  which  take  place  upon  every  alteration 
in  position.  To  exjilain  tin’s  more  clearly,  if  we  take  the  mask  and  hold 
it  with  the  chin  toward  us,  so  as  to  observe  the  curve  on  which  the  mouth 
is  placed,  as  in  Fig.  20,  we  can  easily  perceive  that  a person  viewing  it  in 
the  direction  of  the  lines  a b,  M'liich  would  give  him  a view  of  the  face 
between  a front  and  profile  (or  what  is  termed  by  artists  a three-quarter), 
would  see  one  side  of  the  lip  of  its  entire  length,  while  the  other  side,  lying 
in  the  direction  of  the  visual  rays,  woidd  be  reduced  to  a very  small  space, 
as  may  be  perceived  by  its  breadth  on  the  ideal  line  c,  which  cuts  such  rays 
at  right  angles.  Such,  also,  is  the  case  with  the  nose,  in  the  same  view  of 
the  face ; one  side  remains  undiminished,  while  the  other  side  forms  a mere 
outline,  being  seen  entirely  under  the  influence  of  perspective. 

In  finishing  this  part  of  the  essay,  I cannot  conclude  wfithout  remind- 
ing the  pupil  of  tlie  extreme  importance  of  the  very  first  preliminaries 
of  the  work,  teaching  the  eye  the  power  of  measuring  the  distances  between 
several  points,  as  it  is  the  basis  of  correct  drawing.  In  drawing  a head, 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


13 


if  the  points  wliere  tlie  eyes,  nose  and  mouth  ought  to  be  placed  can  be 
correctly  put  down,  one  of  tbe  greatest  difficulties  w-ill  be  conquered,  and 
the  detail  of  which  each  feature  is  composed  rendered  easy  and  effective,® 
and  the  same  remark  applies  to  the  power  of  combining  the  several  parts 
of  the  largest  assemblage  of  objects.  Tbe  eye  marks  the  distance  of  one 
or  tw'o  leading  points,  which  serve  as  a station  to  start  from,  and  by  a 
careful  combination  of  exact  dimensions  moves  over  the  whole  space  with 
a species  of  ideal  trigonometry.  Being  also  educated  to  observe  the  varia- 
tions of  the  several  lines  according  as  they  are  more  or  less  under  the 
influence  of  perspective  acting  upon  their  form  or  size,  a clear,  defined  outline 
w'ill  be  the  result,  not  only  unattainable  by  any  other  method,  but,  even  if 
attained,  unaccompanied  by  the  power  of  judging  of  its  correctness. 


The  power  of  seeing  objects  correctly  is  gained  by  a careful  examina- 
nation  of  their  general  appearance,  and  of  the  component  parts  which 
produce  such  general  appearance.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  before  pro- 
ceeding to  delineate  any  object,  to  observe  it  attentively  in  the  first  instance, 
to  examine  it  as  a whole,  so  as  to  be  convinced  of  its  great  leading  features, 
the  various  shapes  the  principal  lights  take,  also  the  forms  of  the  darks, 
what  occasions  them,  and  why  they  are  darker  at  one  place  than  at  another; 

"Reynolds,  speaking  of  Frans  Hals,  says,  “In  his  works  the  portrait  painter  may 
observe  the  composition  of  a face,  the  features  well  put  togetlier,  as  the  painters  express 
it,  from  w'hence  that  strong  marked  character  of  individual  Nature,  wliicli  is  so  remarkable 
in  his  portraits,  and  is  not  found  in  an  equal  degree  in  any  other  painter.  If  he  had 
joined  to  this  most  difficult  part  of  the  art  a patience  in  finishing  w'hat  he  had  so  correctly 
planned,  he  might  justly  have  claimed  the  jilace  which  Vandyck,  all  things  considered, 
so  justly  holds  as  the  first  of  portrait  painters.”  In  another  place  he  says,  “The  likeness 
of  a portrait  consists  more  in  the  preserving  the  general  effect  of  the  countenance  than 
in  the  most  minute  finishing  of  the  features,  or  any  of  the  particular  parts.” — Sixth  and 
Fourteenth  Discourses. 


14 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


the  size  and  shape  of  the  smaller  component  parts,  where  they  are  congre- 
gated most,  and  where  the  greatest  vacuum  is  situated;  where  portions 
are  seen  entire,  and  where  they  are  intercepted.  Without  the  e}^e  taking 
cognizance  of  all  these  before  proceeding,  it  will  be  impossible  to  give  a just 
representation,  either  in  the  detail  or  in  the  general  effect;^®  it  will,  more- 


Fig.  21, 


over,  have  a prejudicial  influence,  inasmuch  as  it  will  lead  to  a style  of 
drawing  without  feeling,  character  or  decision.  One  reason  why  the 
drawings  of  eminent  artists  are  superior  to  all  others  is  the  great  intelligence 
every  line  indicates,  the  smallest  touch  being  expressive  of  the  character. 
Another  advantage  this  previous  contemplation  of  the  subject  has  is  the 
storing  of  the  mind  with  materials  for  future  occasions,  when  it  is  necessary 
to  have  recourse  to  the  memory.  Knowledge  in  drawing,  as  well  as  in 
other  sciences,  is  having  ready  a mass  of  materials,  which  we  can  apply  to 
the  subject  in  hand.  Drawing  much  improves  us  as  little  as  reading 
much,  unless  we  contemplate  and  understand  as  we  proceed.  Those  who 
have  acquired  a readiness  of  hand  without  correctness  and  study  have  but 
the  shadow  instead  of  the  substance,  and,  though  to  the  unlearned  their 
works  have  the  appearance  of  excellence,  yet  to  educated  eyes  they  seem 
in  the  light  of  forgeries,  or  like  the  language  of  him  who  talks  speciously 
of  a subject  he  does  not  understand.  After  the  hand  has  once  acquired 

To  illustrate  this,  we  may  have  recourse  to  Titian’s  bunch  of  grapes,  which  we 
will  suppose  placed  so  as  to  receive  a broad  light  and  shadow.  Here,  though  each 
'udividual  grape  on  the  light  side  has  its  light,  and  shadow,  and  reflection,  yet  altogether 
ttiey  make  hut  one  broad  mass  of  light:  the  slightest  sketch,  therefore,  where  this  breadth 
is  preserved,  will  have  a better  effect,  will  have  more  the  appearance  of  coming  from  a 
master  hand — that  is,  in  other  words,  will  have  more  the  characteristic  and  generate  of 
Nature,  than  the  most  laborious  finishing,  where  this  breadth  is  lost  or  neglected. — 
Reynolds  on  Fresnoy,  note  40. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


15 


tills  delusive  dexterity,  the  student  becomes  contented,  and  unable  to  execute 
anything  correctly  in  future.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  remarks  that  “young 
men  have  not  only  this  frivolous  ambition  of  being  thought  masters  of 
execution  inciting  them  on  one  hand,  but  also  their  natural  sloth  tempting 
them  on  the  other.  They  are  terrified  at  the  prospect  before  them  of 
the  toil  required  to  attain  exactness.  The  impetuosity  of  youth  is  dis- 
gusted at  the  slow  approaches  of  a regular  siege,  and  desires,  from  mere 
impatience  of  labor,  to  take  the  citadel  by  storm.  They  wish  to  find  some 
shorter  path  to  excellence,  and  hope  to  obtain  the  reward  of  eminence  by 
other  means  than  those  which  the  indispensable  rules  of  art  have  prescribed. 
They  must,  therefore,  be  told  again  and  again  that  labor  is  the  only  price 
of  solid  fame,  and  that,  whatever  their  force  of  genius  may  be,  there  is 
no  easy  method  of  becoming  a good  painter.”  In  another  place  he  justly 
observes  that  “the  first  business  of  the  student  is  to  be  able  to  give  a true 
representation  of  whatever  object  presents  itself,  just  as  it  appears  to  the 
eye,  so  as  to  amount  to  a deception;  and  the  geometric  rules  of  'perspective 
are  included  in  this  study.  This  is  the  language  of  the  art,  which  appears 
the  more  necessary  to  be  taught  early,  from  the  natural  repugnance  which 
the  mind  has  to  such  mechanical  labor,  after  it  has  acquired  a relish  for 
its  higher  departments.”  Also  in  his  first  discourse  he  says : “A  lively 

and  what  is  called  a masterly  handling  of  the  chalk  or  pencil  are,  it  must 
be  confessed,  captivating  qualities  to  young  minds,  and  become,  of  course, 
the  objects  of  their  ambition.  They  endeavor  to  imitate  these  dazzling 
excellencies,  which  they  will  find  no  great  labor  in  attaining.  After  much 
time  spent  in  these  frivolous  pursuits,  the  difficulty  will  be  to  retreat, 
but  it  will  be  then  too  late;  and  thei’e  is  scarce  an  instance  of  return  to 
scrupulous  labor  after  the  mind  has  been  debauched  and  deceived  by  this 
fallacious  mastery.”  We  find  in  many  of  the  drawings  of  Michael  Angelo, 
Raffaelle,  and  even  Rubens,  some  portions  carefully  studied  and  finished 
with  the  greatest  correctness  from  the  model,  some  difficult  passage  which 
required  labor  and  finish  to  overcome,  or  some  portion  of  great  beauty, 

” Freedom  of  execution,  or  masterly  handling,  as  it  is  termed,  is  often  taught  to 
pupils  that  they  may  apjiear  to  be  making  great  strides  in  the  art.  The  master  frequently 
finds  his  pupil  too  dull,  or  too  inattentive,  to  acquire  a correct  knowledge  of  his  subject, 
therefore  gives  him  the  power  of  displaying  an  appearance  of  dexterity.  To  an 
uneducated  eye,  a sketch  of  a tree,  for  example,  may  be  hit  off  by  the  pupil  with  sufficient 
resemblance  to  satisfy  all  parties;  the  parents  see  nothing  in  the  original  different  from 
the  copy,  for  that  which  appears  to  them  but  a scribbled  appearance,  in  the  original 
indicates  to  the  eye  of  an  artist  foliage,  branches,  and  shadows;  thus  their  education 
seems  finished  before  it  is  in  reality  begun,  and  they  leave  school  without  the  power  of 
drawing  a line.  In  after-life,  when  they  wish  to  delineate  objects  correctly,  they  find  this 
dexterity  rather  an  incumbrance;  the  eye,  previously  debaxiched,  is  incapable  of  receiving 
a true  impression ; while  the  hand,  necessarily  confined  to  the  several  spaces  allotted  to 
the  different  forms,  feels  cramped  and  awkward,  and  obliges  them  to  throw  down  the 
pencil  in  despair.  In  other  branches  of  science  we  find  this  dexterity  checked  in  its 
infancy.  What  w'ould  be  thought  of  a child  who  had  been  taught  to  run  over  the  keys 
of  a pianoforte  without  any  definite  meaning?  Or  of  a master  who  encouraged  the 
scribbling  of  a boy  to  imitate  a free  hand?  I remember  an  artist  wFo  always  took  an 
opportunity  of  disconcerting  the  pretensions  of  such  precocious  geniuses  in  drawing,  by 
laying  down  a key  or  a pair  of  snuffers  for  them  to  delineate. 


16 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


which  nothing  but  fidelity  could  represent.  From  the  contemplation  of 
the  works  of  the  great  painters  we  perceive  a comparative  dryness  and 
stiffness  in  their  earlier  productions,  compared  with  their  later  pictures. 
We,  therefore,  are  naturally  led  to  conclude  that  we  can  accomplish  by 
a shorter  method  what  they  have  shown  us  to  have  been  their  aim — breadth, 
grandeur  and  freedom  of  execution.  It  will  be  found,  however,  that,  though 
a few  strokes  by  the  hand  of  a master  often  express  in  his  later  works  as 
much  as  the  most  careful  finishing  of  his  early  pictures,  yet  that  arises 
entirely  from  his  having  acquired,  by  long  practice,  a mastery  over  his 
materials,  and,  by  long  contemplation,  a perfect  knowledge  of  what  are 
the  leading  features  and  peculiar  character  of  every  object. 

Notwithstanding  the  foregoing  remarks,  careful  drawing  and  minute 
finishing  are  to  be  regulated  in  a great  measure  by  the  nature  of  the  work 
in  hand,  otherwise  these  qualities,  excellent  in  themselves,  are  liable  to  be 
caught  at,  as  an  excuse  for  doing  something  which  requires  the  least 
exertion  of  the  mind.  Though  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  be  able  to 
draw  correctly  whatever  may  be  placed  before  you,  yet  it  does  not  follow 
that  the  same  labor  is  to  be  carried  into  the  subordinate  parts,  otherwise  a 
long  portion  of  life  might  be  spent  in  delineating  the  intricate  ramifications 
of  trees  and  plants,  or  in  mapping  out  with  painful  fidelity  the  hedges  and 
ditches  of  a whole  county.  The  correctness  of  wTich  it  is  necessary  to  be 
possessed  is  to  be  employed  in  rendering  with  accuracy  the  vital  portions 
of  all  works,  frequently  leaving  the  minor  passages  to  be  filled  up  from  our 
general  knowledge  and  practice.  How  vexatious  is  it  to  see  young  men 
attending  academies  and  museums,  month  after  month,  drawing  from  antique 
statues,  in  place  of  bestowing  their  whole  care  in  giving  the  outline  and 
form  correctly,  waste  their  youth  in  industrious  idleness,  in  representing  the 
flaws  and  excoriations  of  the  mutilated  marble,  or  in  smoothly  stippling  in 
a surrounding  mass  of  background ! 


AKRIAT.  PERSPECTIVE. 

Lineal  perspective  being  that  part  of  drawing  which  is  produced  by 
the  means  of  lines  only,  aiudal  perspective  is  made  use  of  to  designate  those 
changes  which  take  place  in  the  appearance  of  objects,  either  as  to  their 
receding  or  advancing,  from  the  interposition  of  the  atmosphere;  there- 
fore, to  the  application  of  this  quality  the  artist  is  mainly  indebted  for  the 
power  of  giving  his  work  the  space  and  retiring  character  of  Nature;  but, 
though  tlie  eye  is  at  all  times  pleased  and  gratified  with  the  power  of 
viewing  distant  prospects,  yet  objects  require  a certain  definition  to  lead 
the  imagination,  without  perplexing  and  troubling  the  mind.  Neither  are 
we  pleased  by  sudden  jumps  from  the  foreground  to  the  extreme  distance, 
d'lie  eye  is  more  delighted,  therefore,  in  being  carried  over  a gradual 
diminution  of  many  intervening  objects,  or  in  searching  for  outlets  through 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


17 


screens  of  intervening  trees  or  clumps  of  buildings ; such  perforations  assist- 
ing by  their  framework  the  distant  tone  of  color  with  which  the  most  remote 
objects  are  nevertheless  sufficiently  embodied  out.  Now,  though  the  inter- 
position of  the  atmosphere  gives  us  the  means  of  producing  the  effect  of 
distance  in  a picture,  yet  the  mind  requires  a certain  variety  to  hold  it 
in  amusement,  and  a certain  appearance  of  substance  to  give  a reality 
to  the  scene.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  atmosphere  is  deprived  of  the 
means  of  refraction,  by  reason  of  its  clearness,  a false  representation  is 
produced,  and  objects  appear  nearer  than  they  are  in  point  of  truth  (as 
may  be  perceived  in  many  scenes  in  Switzerland),  and  the  eye  is  deprived 
of  the  gratification  of  viewing  the  outlines  of  objects  through  a variety  of 
strengths. When  we  reflect  that  the  art  of  painting  is  an  attempt  to 
deceive  the  eye,  in  representing  upon  a perpendicular  surface  the  variety 
of  planes  upon  which  the  several  objects  in  Nature  are  placed;  when  we 
reflect  that  the  painter  is  deprived  of  many  collateral  means  of  assisting 
the  deception,  it  requires  his  whole  knowledge  to  he  employed  in  w^orking 
out  the  result,  lines  possessing  distinctness  of  form,  bulk  and  minutia?, 
light  and  dark  to  give  them  their  full  force  upon  the  eye,  colors  unasso- 
ciated with  atmospheric  influence,  with  the  reverses  of  all  these  assisting 
by  contrast.  We  must  admit  that  a knowledge  of  aerial  perspective 
embraces  in  its  effects  nearly  the  whole  art  of  portraying  the  retiring  and 
advancing  of  objects.  In  the  works  of  Albert  Cuyp  and  Claude  Lorraine 
we  have  many  examples  of  this  quality  in  perfection,  where  the  interpo- 
sition of  the  air,  whether  of  a yellow  or  blue  color,  imbues  every  object 
with  its  just  proportion  according  to  its  relative  distance  from  the  fore- 
ground, and  the  near  objects  are  strengthened  by  black  or  red  or  other 
colors  less  in  unison  wdth  the  general  tone  of  the  picture;  also  in  the 
foreground  of  many  of  the  w'orks  of  Cuyp  and  others,  the  student  may 
perceive  the  shadows  under  the  leaves  and  stones  in  the  foreground,  broad, 
black  and  of  large,  decided  forms.  Nowq  though  this  is  the  general  char- 
acteristic of  this  department,  we  see  in  many  works  of  the  best  artists 
objects  very  much  diminished  in  size  according  to  their  true  perspective 
distance,  yet  possessing  a force  of  color  little  removed  from  the  tints  of 
the  objects  in  the  foreground.  Neither  docs  such  harshness  prevent  them 
keeping  their  situations.  This  arises  from  the  very  small  space  they  occupy 
upon  the  retina,  forming  so  diminished  a picture  in  the  eye,  even  when 
painted  of  the  size  of  Nature.^®  In  historical  compositions  the  most  distant 

De  la  Hire  enumerates  five  circumstances  wliich  assist  us  in  juclghig  of  the  distance 
of  objects,  namely,  their  aj'parent  magnitude,  the  strength  of  the  coloring,  the  direction 
of  the  two  eyes,  the  parallax  of  the  objects,  and  the  distinctness  of  their  small  parts. 
Painters,  he  says,  can  take  advantage  only  of  the  two  first  mentioned  circumstances,  and 
therefore  pictures  can  never  perfectly  deceive  the  eye;  hut  in  the  decorations  of  theaters, 
they  in  some  measure  make  use  of  them  ail,  different  ]ilanes  being  made  use  of,  and 
different  degrees  of  distinctness. — Accidens  de  la  I'lie,  )).  358. 

” Speaking  of  the  retina,  Dr.  Roget  says,  “Few  spectacles  are  more  calculated  to 
raise  our  admiration  than  this  delicate  jucture,  wliich  Nature  has  w'ith  such  exquisite  art, 
and  with  the  finest  touches  of  her  pencil,  spread  over  the  smooth  canvas  of  this  subtle 


18 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


objects  form  often  a portion  of  the  story.  They  are,  therefore,  to  be 
pronounced  with  that  strength  whicli  will  enable  them  to  assist  the  painter 
in  producing  the  desired  effect  on  the  mind  of  the  spectator,  nor  does  truth 
appear  at  all  violated,  provided  they  are  not  made  out  with  too  great  pre- 
cision. In  history  and  the  higher  walks  of  the  art,  where  the  gi’eatest 
liberties  are  allowed,  it  may  be  less  necessary  to  notice  the  conduct  of  the 
best  artists  in  this  particular ; but  we  often  find  it  even  in  landscapes  and 
common  representations  of  natural  effects.  How  often  have  we  observed 
wood  scenes  and  others  prevented  from  being  heavy  by  the  introduction 
of  a few  dark  touches,  and  breadth  of  color  and  space  produced  by  the 
small  dark  of  a figure.  When,  however,  the  effect  of  hazy  sunshine  (such 
as  we  see  in  the  works  of  Cuyp)  is  to  be  represented,  the  most  distant  objects 
ought  to  be  rendered  with  the  greatest  delicacy ; for,  the  whole  atmosphere 
being  then  filled  with  the  refraction  of  light,  the  middle-ground  objects 
appear  to  be  made  out  with  a uniform  tone  or  half-tint.  Aerial  per- 
spective, therefore,  though  understood  to  be  subject  to  rule,  is  more  com- 
pletely under  the  control  of  the  painter  than  lineal  perspective. 

I have  noticed  elsewhere^'‘  how  much  in  reality  objects  in  motion  attract 
the  eye  of  the  spectator,  with  what  intelligence  the  peculiar  walk  of  those 
we  know  is  communicated  even  at  great  distances.  This  is  one  reason  out 
of  many  why  we  are  allowed  to  pronounce  parts  of  a picture  with  more 
strength  than  other  parts,  as  the  mind  of  the  spectator  must  be  arrested 
with  the  same  force  it  feels  itself  acted  upon  under  natural  effects. 

The  application  of  aerial  perspective,  therefore,  enables  the  artist  to 
keep  the  several  objects  in  their  respective  situations,  and  give  a natural 
reality  to  the  most  complicated  scene.  A row  of  columns  will  diminish 
according  as  they  are  drawn  true  to  lineal  perspective,  but  it  is  to  this 

Fig.  22. 


some  at  rest  and  otliers  in  motion,  yet  all  accurately  represented  as  to  their  forms,  colors 
and  positions,  and  followed  in  all  their  changes  without  the  least  interference,  irregularity 
or  confusion.  Every  one  of  those  countless  and  stupendous  orbs  of  fire,  whose  light,  after 
traversing  immeasurable  regions  of  S])ace,  at  length  reaches  our  eye,  is  collected  on  its 
narrow  curtain  into  a luminous  focus  of  inconceivable  minuteness,  and  yet  this  almost 
infinitesimal  point  shall  he  sufficient  to  convey  to  the  mind,  through  the  medium  of  the 
oiitie  nerve  and  brain,  a knowledge  of  the  existence  and  position  of  the  far  distant  luminary 
from  which  that  light  has  emanated. — Doctor  Roget’s  Bridgewater  Treatise. 

’■■In  Practical  Hints  upon  Light  and  Shade. 


PLATE  I 


THE  CANAL  OF  DORT 


Fig,  2. 


by  J 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


19 


quality  of  light  and  shade  that  they  are  indebted  for  their  effect  upon  the 
eye.  Also,  two  angles  may  occupy  the  same  space  on  the  retina,  but  by 
this  power  one  is  made  to  approach,  and  the  other  to  recede,  so  that  one 
is  diminished  to  the  size  of  a tent,  the  other  increased  to  a pyramid. 


Fig.  23. 


In  Plate  I,  Fig.  1,  the  Canal  of  Dort,  by  Cuyp,  in  the  Bridgewater 
collection,  we  not  only  find  an  excellent  example  of  aerial  perspective, 
but  also  of  that  assemblage  of  lines  produced  by  the  repetition  of  forms, 
which  assists  the  receding  of  objects  from  their  diminution,  the  doubling 
of  the  lines  in  producing  richness  of  effect,  and  that  harmony  which  arises 
from  one  line  counteracting  another  in  its  direction,  giving  thereby  a general 
balance  to  the  whole.  The  effect  of  aerial  perspective  upon  tlie  eye  being 
mainly  attributable  to  the  application  of  shadow  to  the  several  outlines, 
tliereby  giving  them  their  approaching  or  receding  character,  such  arrange- 
ment is  to  be  chosen  which  will  give  them  this  cpiality,  and  wliich  is  to  be 
afterward  repeated  in  smaller  portions  througli  the  piece.  In  accidental 
combinations  in  Nature  we  often  perceive  this  arrangement  (as  in  Fig.  2, 
Plate  I),  which  ought  to  be  sketched  and  reflected  upon  as  one  of  the  great 
means  we  have  of  enabling  us  to  cope  with  her  under  the  disadvantage  of 
working  upon  a fiat  surface.  We  also  find  aerial  perspective  indebted  in 
its  effect  to  the  collection  of  many  parts,  whose  shadows  form  a mass  of 
half-tint,  their  distance  bringing  them  in  apparent  contact,  owing  to  their 
diminution ; while  their  softness  gives  them  apparent  distance,  owing  to 
their  want  of  minute  parts,  as  in  Fig.  3,  Plate  I. 

To  go  through  on  every  occasion  with  a variety  of  examples  would,  I 
feel  persuaded,  only  perplex  the  student.  If  he  comprehends  any  rule,  it 
is  easy  to  extend  it.  To  those  who  understand  slowly,  reflection  on  one 
or  two  diagrams  will  be  of  more  service  than  educating  the  eye  without 
impressing  the  mind.  The  real  trouble  in  life,  in  all  professions,  is  the 
trouble  of  thinking,  to  escape  which  the  most  laborious  trifling  is  caught 
at;  but,  if  fairly  grappled  with  at  the  outset,  everything  becomes  clear, 
and,  in  after-life,  that  which  is  a continual  annoyance  to  many  becomes 
one  of  the  greatest  gratifications.  Why  is  it  that,  to  the  eye  of  an  artist, 
the  drawing  of  a complicated  jfian  is  rendered  clear  at  a glance,  while  to 
others  it  requires  a multitude  of  figures  of  reference  and  a long  explanation? 


20 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


It  is  that  his  mind  has  been  educated  in  continual  intercourse  with  the  eye, 
and  the  constant  habit  of  reflecting  on  cause  and  effect  has  rendered  a 
numerous  assemblage  of  lines  intelligible  to  him,  which  to  others  uneducated 
appear  like  a species  of  hieroglyphic. 

CHIARO  OSCURO. 

Chiaro  oscuro,  or  light  and  shade,  when  applied  to  the  management  of 
a picture,  takes  a range  too  wide  to  be  explained  without  the  assistance 
of  a multitude  of  examples,  and  even  then  it  would  be  ver}^  imperfect,  so 
endless  and  multifarious  are  the  changes  it  assumes,  being  entirely  at  the 
caprice  of  the  painter.  Paul  Veronese,  when  questioned  about  the  propriety 
of  accounting  for  a shadow,  answered,  “A  cloud  is  passing” ; and  Reynolds, 
sa3's,  “The  proprieties  of  a painter  are  superior  to  all  other  considerations,” 
and,  “he  whose  ahn  is  to  touch  the  passions  must  not  be  too  fastidious 
in  pandering  to  an  uneducated  eye.  The  effect  is  to  be  produced  at  any 
sacrifice ; but  tlie  painter  who  accomplishes  his  purpose  with  the  least 
violation  of  truth  shows  the  greatest  command  of  his  materials.”  This  it 
is  which  places  the  works  of  the  great  painters  beyond  the  comprehension 
of  the  ignorant.  They  only  can  judge  of  external  matters,  and  are  pleased 
when  the  eye  alone  is  gratified ; whereas  the  aim  is  the  homage  of  the 
educated  mind.  “Leonardo  da  Vinci,”  Reynolds  remarks,  “recommends 
the  light  side  of  a group  to  be  brought  off  a dark  ground,  and  the  dark 
side  opposed  to  a light  ground.  This,  no  doubt,  was  the  practice  when  the 
arts  were  in  their  infancy ; but,  had  he  lived  to  see  what  has  been  produced 
by  the  contrary  mctliod,  he  would  have  altered  his  opinion.”  If  relief  or 
distinctness  is  the  aim  of  the  artist,  it  is  certainly  tlie  best;  but,  if  breadth 
of  effect,  he  will  best  accomplish  it  by  combining  light  with  light,  and  losing 
the  darks  of  the  group  in  a still  darker  background. 

Light  and  shade,  therefore,  independent  of  its  effects  in  rendering 
objects  more  distinct  and  intelligible,  has  other  properties,  and  those  of  a 
higher  quality.  When  painting  has  to  take  a station  in  the  ranks  along 
with  music  and  poetry,  these  properties  are  the  means  of  giving  breadth 
and  grandeur  of  form,  tlie  effects  of  bustle  or  repose,  and  that  peculiar 
emphasis  which  particular  portions  of  a composition  require.  Now,  in 
many  situations,  wliere  such  qualities  are  requisite.  Nature  offers  often 
little  more  tlian  a suggestion,  and  upon  such  hint  the  artist  is  obliged  to 
lay  the  foundation  of  his  whole  scheme,  and  work  it  out  according  to  the 
command  he  lias  of  his  materials,  or  the  quantity  he  is  in  possession  of. 
Some  compositions  being  entirely  addressed  to  the  mind,  while  others  are 
confined  to  a mere  gratification  of  the  eye,  a greater  or  less  liberty  is 
allowed  to  be  taken  with  the  arrangement  of  the  light  and  shade  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  work  in  hand.  Light  and  shade,  or  the  conduct  of  the 
chiaro  oscuro  of  any  work,  is,  therefore,  entirely  given  up  to  the  control 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


21 


of  the  artist,  to  be  used  for  the  express  purpose  of  rendering  his  design 
complete.  Wliere  he  departs  too  much  from  the  arrangements  observable 
in  Nature,  it  becomes  capricious,  and  loses  its  effect  upon  the  eye  of  the 
spectator.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  everyday  occurrences  are  adopted, 
his  work  becomes  common  and  feeble.  Reynolds  says  justly:  “When  we 

are  required  to  paint  broad,  it  is  not  understood  that  we  should  paint 
broader  than  Nature;  but  objects  are  to  be  so  placed  that  there  is  scarcely 
any  limit  to  their  breadth  of  light  and  shade.  In  the  earlier  stages  of 
painting,  relief  and  distinctness  were  the  only  requisites  sought  after. 
If  a round  object  could  be  represented  upon  a flat  surface,  or  any  substance 
so  expressed  as  to  induce  the  spectator  to  put  forth  his  hand  to  touch  it, 
as  a test  of  the  deception,  the  height  of  the  artist’s  ambition  was  attained; 
but,  as  the  art  advanced,  it  was  found  that  painting  could  achieve  more 
honorable  results.  The  mind  was  to  be  acted  upon,  without  stopping  to 
gratify  the  eye  at  the  threshold  of  entrance.  Coreggio  seems  to  have  been 
one  of  the  first  who  employed  chiaro  oscuro  in  its  greatest  extent,  to  give 
to  his  compositions  that  dreamy  character  which  removes  them  from  the 
“ignorant  present,”  and  which  is  the  result  of  breadth,  and  melting  of  the 
outline  in  the  tint  which  surrounds  it.  If  we  examine,  for  example,  a room 
filled  with  several  objects,  in  open  day,  the  distinctness  with  which  they  all 
present  themselves  to  the  eye  not  only  perplexes  it  in  finding  a resting 
place,  from  each  claiming  attention,  but  the  quickness  with  which  we  are 
carried  from  one  object  to  another  (from  a single  glance  being  sufficient  to 
satisfy  our  curiosity)  destroys  that  pleasure  the  mind  receives  from  con- 
templation ; whereas,  the  same  scene,  viewed  in  the  evening,  by  the  light 
of  a fire  or  candle,  exhibits  effects  more  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  gratifying 
to  the  mind,  which  are  entirely  owing  to  the  breadth  of  light  and  shade. 
Fewer  objects  present  themselves  to  the  eye,  and  these  few  acquiring  novelty 
in  their  forms,  from  the  shadows  floating  about.  Others,  entirely  buried 
in  obscurity,  amuse  the  imagination  in  tracing  them  into  form ; while  the 
large  blank  spaces  present  vacuums  for  the  eye  to  rest  and  repose  upon. 
Independent  of  these  results,  we  also  know  that  objects  acquire  grandeur 
from  their  breadth  and  simplicity  of  parts,  the  shadows  being  more  of  one 
strength,  and  the  lights  more  of  one  color,  two  concomitants  of  greatness. 


the  early  stages  of  the  art,  we  find  tlic  outlines  of  the  Egyi>tian  and  Grecian 
figures  and  ornaments  ii])on  the  walls  marked  with  a broad,  deep,  shai’ii  cut  indentation, 
which,  receiving  a strong  shadow,  gave  great  distinctness.  In  the  next  stage,  we  find  that 
the  figures  were  a little  raised,  so  as  to  form  what  is  termed  basso  relievo;  and  that 
they  were  not  rounded  gradually  from  the  ground,  but  cut  ]ier])endicularly  to  the  surface. 
In  the  more  advanced  state  of  the  art,  when  the  figures  assumed  a greater  projection,  and 
became  what  is  termed  alto  relievo,  where  some  portions  are  entirely  cut  through  from 
the  surface,  as  may  he  seen  in  the  Elgin  marbles,  the  outlines  of  those  figures  less 
advanced  were  rounded  off,  so  as  to  receive  less  shadow,  and  thereby  give  greater  value 
to  those  in  high  relief:  we  also  find  an  attention  to  the  effects  of  light  and  shade  influence 
their  management  of  single  statues,  in  the  construction  of  their  buildings,  and  even  in 
the  forms  of  the  most  trifling  utensils.  "NVe  thus  see  that  the  gratification  of  the  eye  is 
one  of  the  chief  sources  from  which  the  taste  of  a country  emanates,  and  its  perpetuitv 
is  in  proportion  as  it  is  founded  upon  the  great  truths  oliserved  in  the  general  character 
of  Nature,  and  its  influence  on  succeeding  ages,  by  its  adoption  by  men  of  science  capable 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


In  entering  upon  this  branch  of  the  art,  it  will,  however,  be  necessary 
to  confine  our  remarks,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the  effects  of  light  and  shade 
upon  the  forms  of  objects,  in  altering  their  appearance  to  the  eye  of  the 
spectator,  without  reference  to  their  acting  upon  the  imagination. 

All  outlines,  without  the  application  of  this  quality,  are  deficient  in 
giving  a true  representation  to  the  eye;  for  example,  two  circular  outlines 
without  shadow  have  no  distinct  meaning,  but,  by  the  application  of  this 
property,  they  either  become  convex  or  concave  bodies.^® 


Fig.  24. 


Fig.  25. 


We  also  find  that  objects  either  project  or  recede  according  to  the 
strength  of  their  shadows,  and  become  either  solids  or  vacuums  from  their 
shadows  falling  within  or  without  the  spaces  marked  by  their  outlines. 


Fig.  27. 


We  also  find  that  it  often  indicates  the  peculiar  character  of  objects 
when  the  outline  is  hid  in  consequence  of  the  situation  of  the  spectator,  as 
in  Fig.  28. 

of  ap]ircciating  its  value.  Even  in  the  dark  ages,  when  truth  and  simplicity  were  overlaid 
and  hid  by  a mass  of  ornament  and  an  assemblage  of  minute  parts,  a combination  of 
beautiful  arrangement  has  arisen  out  of  such  Gothic  absurdities,  which  has  given  to 
jiainting,  sculpture  and  architecture  a fullness  of  effect  unattainable  by  any  other  method. 
The  endless  and  fatiguing  portions  of  minutiae,  which  lay  scattered  over  the  surface,  have 
been  collected,  and  arranged  in  masses  of  richness  and  repose;  the  spottiness  of  strong, 
harsh  colors  have  been  softened  and  sulidued  by  harmony  and  opj)osition;  while  the  dry 
and  cold  outline  of  individual  form  has  been  adapted  to  the  gratification  of  the  educated 
eye,  founded  upon  the  great  principles  of  truth  and  simplicity. 

“We  judge  of  the  figure  and  shape  of  Iiodies  chiefly  by  the  variations  of  light  and 
shade,  and  our  associations  taken  thence  are  so  strong,  as  we  are  easily  imposed  upon  by 
a just  imitation  of  the  liglit  and  shade  belonging  to  each  sliajie  and  figure  in  their  several 
situations  with  resj)ect  to  the  quarter  from  wliich  the  illumination  proceeds.  It  is  from 
the  associations  considered  under  this  proposition,  and  particularly  in  the  last  paragraph, 
that  ])ainting  conveys  such  exact  ideas  of  shapes,  figures,  magnitudes  and  distances,  and 
the  camera  obscura  of  motion  also,  by  means  of  impressions  that  proceed  from  a plane 
surface.” — Hartley  on  Man,  on  the  Sense  of  Siyht. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


Fig.  28. 


In  drawings  of  machinery,  this  is  often  of  the  utmost  importance,  as 
information  is  the  only  point  aimed  it.  We  likewise  often  find  shadow 
made  use  of  for  the  enriching  of  the  subject,  by  making  the  shadows  of 
complicated  objects  fall  upon  a background  of  an  uneven  surface,  as  in 
Fig.  29. 


Fiz.  29. 


Any  work  treating  of  the  education  of  the  eye,  however  short,  must 
necessarily  touch  upon  points  spreading  over  a large  range  of  study,  and, 
of  course,  occupying  a long  space  of  time  to  become  master  of.  It  will, 
therefore,  be  difficult  to  separate  those  parts  which  require  a power  in  the 
mind  from  that  portion  which  depends  more  upon  the  cultivation  of  the 
eye,  accompanied  with  very  little  effort  of  thinking.  Nothing  hut  early 
practice  can  enable  the  eye  to  see,  and  tlie  hand  to  put  on  paper,  the 


24 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


various  objects  necessai'y  to  painting  with  readiness  and  fidelity;  as  has 
been  remarked  by  Reynolds,  who  sa}'s : “A  degree  of  mechanical  practice 

must  precede  theory.  The  reason  is  that,  if  we  wait  till  we  are  able  to 
comprehend  the  theory  of  the  art,  too  much  of  life  will  be  passed  to 
permit  us  to  acquire  facility  and  power.  Something,  therefore,  must  be 
done  on  trust,  by  mere  imitation  of  given  patterns,  before  the  theory  of 
the  art  can  be  felt.”  Yet,  nevertheless,  the  attention  should  be  gradually 
awakened  to  observation,  otherwise  the  pow’er  of  the  mind  will  lie  too 
long  dormant  to  be  easily  called  into  action  when  judgment  is  acquired, 
for,  as  he  further  observes,  “an  artist  ought  to  see  clearly  enough  to 
enable  him  to  point  out  to  others  the  principle  upon  which  he  works, 
otherwise  he  will  be  confined,  and,  what  is  worse,  he  will  be  uncertain.” 
In  the  portion  of  this  essay,  therefore,  which  is  passed  over,  I have 
endeavored  to  confine  myself  merely  to  that  extent  of  knowledge  which 
every  one  ought  to  possess  to  enable  him  in  after-life  to  enjoy  the  beauties 
of  Nature  and  art,  and  give  him  the  power  of  communicating  his  ideas 
usefully  to  others.  I shall  now  endeavor  to  trace  through  the  higher 
departments  of  art  those  principles  of  design  upon  which  painting  depends 
for  its  operation  on  the  mind,  and  which  places  it  in  the  same  rank  with 
poetry  and  music. 


INVENTION. 

Invention  is  the  great  soul  of  painting,  without  which  the  being  in 
possession  of  an  accumulation  of  studies  is  of  little  avail.  We  may  collect 
the  materials,  but  Ave  cannot  build  without  a plan,  nor  can  we  construct 
that  plan  without  a perfect  knowledge  on  Avhat  to  raise  the  superstructure. 
When  Raffaelle  was  commissioned  to  paint  the  apartments  of  the  Vatican 
Avith  representations  of  Theology,  Philosophy,  Poetrjq  etc.,  it  Avas  necessary, 
in  the  first  place,  that  he  should  knoAv  not  only  the  origin  and  foundation 
of  each  of  them,  but  also  the  character  and  history  of  those  personages 
who  ranked  pre-eminent  in  the  several  departments  of  science,  that  by  the 
combination  of  such  figures  he  might  be  enabled  to  illustrate  the  subjects 
in  hand ; for  it  is  by  this  method  that  the  artist  shoAvs  his  imaginative 
poAvers,  for,  though  this  part  of  the  Avork  may  belong  to  the  poet  and 
historian  in  an  equal  degree,  yet  the  mind  of  an  artist,  from  his  habits  of 
flunking  and  from  a knoAvledge  of  Avhat  is  Avithin  tlie  poAver  of  his  art, 
gives  the  illustration  of  the  subject  a more  graphic  turn  than  either 

” It  is  the  descriptions  of  poets  and  historians  possessing  this  cliaracter  which  renders 
tliein  more  striking  to  the  imagination;  such  as  the  descri|)tion  of  tlie  I.ast  Judgment 
hy  Peter  Aretin,  which  made  Michael  Angelo  regret  that  he  liad  composed  the  subject 
j)revious  to  receiving  his  letter:  “Who  would  not  tremble,”  he  writes,  “at  taking  up  his 
pencil  to  trace  so  tremendous  a subject?  I see,  in  the  midst  of  innumeralile  beings, 
Antichrist,  with  features  wliich  you  alone  could  imagine;  I see  terror  imprinted  upon 
the  face  of  the  living;  I see  the  faint  traces  of  the  sun.  the  moon,  and  the  stars,  Avhose 
fires  are  ]ierce]itihly  diminishing.  The  elements  apjiear  dissolving.  I see  all  Nature 
horror-struck,  liarren,  and  gathered  u|i  in  its  decreptitude ; I see  Time  emaciated  and 
trembling,  who,  arrived  at  his  last  stage,  is  reposing  on  the  dried-up  trunk  of  a tree;  and 


PLATE  II 


Sacrifice  at  L'tstra. 


PLATE  III 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


25 


therefore,  though  the  education  of  an  artist’s  mind  is  in  many  things 
similar  to  the  education  of  that  of  others,  yet,  in  addition,  he  requires  a 
knowledge  of  the  various  methods  the  great  painters  have  employed  to 
explain  and  exemplify  their  ideas ; “for  it  is  only  by  knowing  the 
inventions  of  others  we  learn  to  invent,  as  it  is  by  knowing  the  thoughts 
of  others  we  learn  to  think.”  Mengs  observes  that  it  is  invention  which 
makes  noble  the  art  of  painting,  and  discovers  the  force  of  the  artist’s 
understanding,  and  that  Raffaelle  obtained  a rank  with  great  poets  and 
orators  from  this  source.  Invention  being  the  work  of  the  mind  addressed 
to  the  mind,  composition  that  of  the  eye  addressed  to  the  sight,  yet,  though 
in  many  things  the  mind  of  the  poet  or  historian  is  similar  to  the  painter’s, 
the  power  of  the  latter  is  much  more  limited.  The  historian  may  have  a 
hundred  pages  to  convey  his  story ; the  painter  has  but  one.  This  circum- 
stance has  led  mankind  in  all  ages  to  allow  him  a greater  latitude  and 
license  in  embodying  any  representation.  His  invention,  therefore,  takes 
a wide  range  through  the  whole  features  of  the  event,  whatever  it  may  be, 
and  enables  him  to  combine  in  one  focus  every  means  of  rendering  the  story 
attractive,  clear  and  effective.  He  invents,  therefore,  those  arrangements 
which  awaken  the  mind,  from  their  giving  rise  to  an  association  of  ideas. 
He  selects  also  those  points  which  bear  the  strongest  upon  the  character 
of  the  subject  to  be  represented,  and  which,  from  their  nature,  are  most 
palpable  to  the  eye,  to  heighten  their  effect  by  the  judicious  introduction 
of  images  operating  by  means  of  contrast,  and  endeavors  to  combine  the 
whole  by  the  most  natural  and  unaffected  method.  The  power  of  invention, 
therefore,  in  a painter,  must  depend  upon  his  extent  of  Information,  his 
command  of  the  materials  applicable  to  his  art,  and  a felicitous  choice  of 
the  particular  incidents  most  striking  to  the  eye.  If  he  Invents  from  history, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  take  the  most  current  version  of  the  story  for  his 
guide,  and  engraft  upon  it  those  embellishments  derived  from  costume, 
manners  of  the  people  and  local  scenery,  painting  everything  from  Nature, 
which  gives  a wonderful  appearance  of  truth  and  force  to  the  representation. 
From  poetry  or  allegory  a greater  liberty  of  enriching  the  design  will  be 
allowed,  as  the  whole  range  of  ancient  and  modern  fable  lies  open  for  his 

while  the  trumpets  of  the  angels  resound  through  all  hearts,  I see  Life  and  Death 
overwhelmed  with  extraordinary  confusion,  the  one  is  wearied  with  lifting  up  the  dead, 
while  the  other  strikes  down  the  living;  behind,  I see  Hope  and  Despair  conducting  troops 
of  the  good  and  the  bad.  The  sky  is  suffused  with  the  brightest  rays.  Christ,  seated 
on  clouds,  is  environed  with  splendor,  and  with  the  terrors  inspired  by  the  heavenly  hosts, 
his  face  is  resplendent  with  light,  and  his  eyes,  shining  with  a soft  yet  terrible  fire,  fill  the 
virtuous  with  lively  joy,  and  the  wicked  with  mortal  fear.  I see  the  ministers  of  hell, 
with  horrible  countenances,  who,  surrounded  by  the  glory  of  saints  and  martyrs,  mock 
the  Caesars  and  Alexanders  of  the  world,  and  yet  not  knowing  how  to  get  the  better  of 
themselves.  I see  Renown,  with  her  crowns  and  palms  trodden  under  foot,  thrown  down 
under  the  wheels  of  her  own  triumphant  chariots.  I hear  the  Son  of  God  ])ronouncing 
the  last  judgmejit;  at  his  voice  the  good  and  the  bad  are  separated;  the  world  crumbles 
to  pieces  at  the  peals  of  thunder.  Darkness  divides  Paradise  from  the  furnaces  of  hell. 
In  retracing  these  terrible  images,  I said  to  myself,  one  would  tremble  as  much  at  seeing 
the  work  of  Buonarotti  as  at  the  day  of  judgment  itself.” — Peter  Aretin’s  Letters  from 
Venice. 


26 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


pui*pose  of  illustration.  At  the  head  of  this  department  of  the  art,  by 
universal  consent,  and  especially  by  those  who  have  most  carefully  exam- 
ined his  works,  stands  Raffaelle.  Not  only  do  his  inventions  embrace  the 
most  leading  and  most  striking  parts  of  the  story,  but  he  carries  the 
spectator  back  to  its  commencement  by  a chain  of  the  most  natural  circum- 
stances, and  shows  also,  by  the  same  felicitous  extension  of  his  design, 
those  results  which  followed  its  taking  place ; thus  exhibiting  in  one  page 
the  contents  of  a volume,  such  as  we  see  in  his  “Death  of  Ananias,”  his 
“Transfiguration,”  the  “School  of  Athens,”  the  “Sacrifice  at  Lystra”  and 
many  others.  Lanzi,  speaking  of  this  quality  of  Raffaelle,  says:  “Various 

writers  have  mentioned  the  ‘St.  Paul  at  Lystra,’  one  of  the  cartoons,  as 
an  example  (Plate  II).  The  artist  has  there  represented  the  sacrifice 
prepared  for  him  and  St.  Barnabas  as  to  two  gods,  for  having  restored 
a lame  man  to  the  use  of  his  limbs.  The  altar,  the  attendants,  the  victims, 
the  musicians  and  the  axe  sufficiently  indicate  the  intentions  of  the  Lystrians. 
St.  Paul,  who  is  in  the  act  of  tearing  his  robe,  shows  that  he  rejects  and 
abhors  the  sacrilegious  honors,  and  is  endeavoring  to  dissuade  the  populace 
from  persisting  in  them ; but  all  this  were  in  vain,  if  it  had  not  indicated 
the  miracle  which  had  just  happened,  and  which  had  given  rise  to  the  event. 
Raffaelle,  therefore,  added  to  the  group  the  lame  man  restored  to  the  use 
of  his  limbs,  now  easily  recognized  by  the  spectators.  He  stands  before 
the  apostles,  rejoicing  in  his  restoration,  and  raises  his  hands  in  transport 
toward  his  benefactors,  while  at  his  feet  lie  the  crutches,  now  cast  away 
as  useless.  This  had  been  sufficient  for  any  other  artist,  but  Raffaelle, 
who  wished  to  give  a greater  appearance  of  reality,  has  added  several 
people,  who,  in  their  eager  curiosity,  remove  the  garment  of  the  man  to 
behold  his  limbs  restored  to  their  natural  state.”  As  the  people  called  St. 
Paul  Mercury,  from  his  being  chief  speaker,  Raffaelle  has  alluded  to  this 
by  a statue  of  IMercury  in  the  elistance,  and  a figure  in  the  foreground 
with  a chaplet  of  ivy,  bringing  in  a ram,  both  indicative  of  the  sacrifices 
to  that  god.  By  the  uplifted  hands  of  the  restored  cripple,  and  the  youth 
who  stretches  out  his  hands  to  arrest  the  arm  of  the  sacrificers,  we  perceive 
the  effect  of  St.  Paul’s  persuasions,  in  the  same  way  as  he  indicates  the 
conversion  to  Christianity  of  the  woman  of  Damaris  and  Dionysius  in  the 
cartoon  of  Paul  preaching  at  Athens.  In  the  inventions  of  Raffaelle  we 
find  the  representation  of  any  event,  extending  its  effects  on  the  several 
spectators  in  a variety  of  wa}"s,  producing  the  most  natural  action  and 
expression,  and  all  conducive  to  the  illustration  of  the  subject.  His  rich 
store  of  materials  from  the  Greek  and  Roman  antique,  with  the  inventions 
of  those  artists  who  preceded  him  in  the  restoration  of  painting  in  Italy, 
enabled  him  to  embellish  his  design  with  an  endless  accumulation  of  incident, 
giving  chasteness,  simplicity  and  the  power  of  carrying  the  mind  back  to 
times  long  gone  by.  No  one  has  possessed  so  great  a command  over  his  mate- 
rials, or  greater  address  in  adapting  them  to  his  own  purpose.  The  Greek 
frems  and  statues,  the  Roman  basso  relievos,  the  primitive  character  of 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


27 


the  works  of  Giotto  and  Masaccio,  the  grand  outline  and  foreshortening  of 
the  figures  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  may  be  all  traced 
through  his  works,  but  the  inventive  genius  which  has  called  them  into  new 
existence,  with  a more  natural  and  a more  powerful  effect  on  the  spectator, 
is  peculiarly  his  own. 

Invention  being  more  properly  a combination  of  those  qualities  which 
affect  the  mind  and  awaken  sensations  in  the  imagination  of  the  spectator, 
the  inventions  of  Raffaclle  affect  different  spectators  according  to  their 
different  degrees  of  taste  or  cultivation ; whereas  the  inventions  of  Paul 
Veronese,  Tintoret  and  others  of  the  Venetian  school,  being  more  addressed 
to  the  eye,  please  and  captivate  all  beholders,  from  their  harmony  of  light 
and  shade,  and  their  beautiful  and  gorgeous  arrangement  of  splendid  color. 
With  Raffaelle  the  leading  point  of  the  story  is  boldly  and  nobly  expressed, 
while  its  effects  are  diffused  and  spread  over  the  countenances  and  actions 
of  the  adjoining  figures,  and  revived  and  embellished  by  episodes  and  rep- 
resentations of  the  preceding  and  following  events,  acting  upon  the  more 
subordinate  or  more  extended  portions  of  the  composition,  such  as  we  see 
in  the  “Ananias,”  the  “Hcliodorus,”  the  “Sacrifice  at  Lystra,”  the  “Attila” 
and  the  “Transfiguration.”  Thus,  what  is  effected  in  the  one  case  by  the 
diffusion  of  light  and  color  is  produced  by  Raffaelle  through  the  medium 
of  the  expression  and  action  of  his  figures.  This  it  is  that  has  gained  for 
him  the  appellation  of  the  painter  of  mind,  and  his  making  use  of  those 
materials  from  which  the  taste  and  cultivation  of  the  mind  is  derived  gives 
to  his  works  that  charm  which  increases  by  contemplation,  since  they  revive 
within  us  ideas  of  all  the  great  and  beautiful  works  we  have  ever  beheld. 

Invention  being  more  properly  the  province  of  the  mind  than  the  eye, 
perhaps  it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  longer  upon  it  in  this  place ; but  we 
must  always  bear  in  recollection  that  the  mind  of  an  artist  is  formed  from 
a contemplation  of  those  circumstances  which  it  will  be  in  his  power  to 
make  use  of,  and  that  is  one  reason,  among  others,  why  I dwell  more 
particularly  upon  the  inventions  of  Raffaele  than  upon  those  of  Michael 
Angelo.^®  They  are  more  practical,  and  can  be  adopted  by  those  whose 
Avorks  are  addressed  to  the  feelings  of  all  classes,  or,  as  Lord  Bacon  says, 
“come  home  to  the  business  and  bosoms  of  most  men.”  The  inventions  of 

” Reynolds,  drawing  a comparison  between  Michael  Angelo  and  Raffaelle,  says, 
“Raffaelle  had  more  taste  and  fancy,  Michael  Angelo  more  genius  and  imagination.  The 
one  excelled  in  beauty,  the  other  in  energy.  Michael  Angelo  has  more  of  the  poetical 
inspiration;  his  ideas  are  vast  and  sublime;  his  people  are  a superior  order  of  beings, 
there  is  nothing  about  them,  nothing  in  the  air  of  their  actions  or  their  attitudes,  or 
the  style  and  cast  of  their  limbs  or  features,  that  reminds  us  of  their  belonging  to  our 
own  species.  Raffaelle’s  imagination  is  not  so  elevated;  his  figures  are  not  so  much 
disjoined  from  our  own  diminutive  race  of  beings,  though  his  ideas  are  chaste,  noble,  and 
of  great  conformity  to  their  subjects.  Michael  Angelo’s  works  have  a strong,  peetdiar 
and  marked  character;  they  seem  to  proceed  from  his  own  mind  entirely,  and  that  mind 
so  rich  and  abundant,  that  he  never  needed,  or  seemed  to  disdain  to  look  about  for  foreign 
help.  Raffaelle’s  materials  are  generally  borrowed,  though  the  noble  structure  is  bis  own. 
The  excellency  of  this  extraordinary  man  lay  in  the  propriety,  beauty  and  majesty  of  his 
characters,  the  judicious  contrivance  of  his  composition,  his  correstness  of  drawing,  purity 
of  taste  and  skillful  accommodation  of  other  men’s  conceptions  to  his  own  purpose. 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


Michael  Angelo,  on  the  other  hand,  elevate  the  feelings  only  of  the  learned, 
while  they  appear  extravagant  and  overcharged  to  the  generality  of  man- 
kind ; notwithstanding  which,  this  is  the  spirit  which  ought  to  influence  the 
taste  and  genius  of  other  artists,  and  which  made  Raffaelle  exclaim  that 
“he  thanked  God  that  he  was  born  in  the  same  age  with  that  great  man !” 
We  need  not  go  further  than  refer  to  his  great  work  of  the  “Last  Judg- 
ment,” where  he  introduces  Charon  ferrying  over  the  souls  of  the  damned, 
and  other  allusions  to  the  heathen  mythology,  which  give  to  the  Christian 
creed  the  adventitious  character  of  learned  fable.  On  the  other  hand, 
Raffaelle  grasps  his  subject  with  the  power  of  one  who  relies  upon  truth 
and  Nature  for  the  effect;  and,  leaving  the  regions  of  poetry  and  fiction, 
gives  an  identity  to  the  scene,  founded  upon  the  principle  of  simple  facts 
being  ennobled  by  the  great  powers  of  elevated  art.  Besides,  we  must 
never  forget  that  the  public  taste  is  already  formed  from  a contemplation 
of  the  many  great  works  now  in  existence,  and  which  have  stood  the  test 
of  ages,  and  that  it  is  only  by  being  in  some  manner  conformable  to  these 
we  can  ever  hope  for  a favorable  reception. 


COMPOSITION. 

By  composition  is  generally  meant  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the 
several  parts  considered  as  a whole ; consequently,  the  form  or  plan  of  any 
composition  is  the  first  process  the  painter  practically  commences  with. 
The  nature  of  the  subject  having  been  settled,  he  weighs  in  his  mind  the 
effect  to  be  produced  upon  the  spectator.  He,  therefore,  arranges  his 
figures  and  objects  accordingly,  and  endeavors  to  distribute  his  materials 
in  that  form  which  will  best  accord  with  his  intention.  The  illustration 
of  his  story,  the  distribution  of  his  light  and  shade  and  color,  the  localities 
of  the  scene,  all  present  their  individual  interests  to  his  notice,  while  his 

Nobody  excelled  him  in  that  judgment  with  which  he  united  to  his  own  observations  on 
Nature  the  energy  of  Michael  Angelo,  and  the  beauty  and  simplicity  of  the  antique.  To 
the  question,  therefore,  ‘Which  ought  to  hold  the  first  rank,  Raffaelle  or  Michael  Angelo?’ 
it  must  he  answered,  that  if  it  is  to  he  given  to  him  who  possessed  a greater  coml)ination 
of  the  higher  qualities  of  the  art  than  any  other  man,  there  is  no  doubt  hut  Raffaelle  is 
the  first.  But  if,  as  Longinus  thinks,  the  siiblime,  being  the  highest  excellence  that  human 
composition  can  attain  to,  abundantly  conqiensates  the  absence  of  every  other  beauty, 
and  atones  for  all  other  deficiencies,  then  Michael  Angelo  demands  the  preference.” — 
Fifth  Discourse. 

’’“From  time  to  time  there  ari.=e  unon  the  earth  men  who  seem  formed  to  become 
tlie  center  of  an  intellectual  system  of  their  own;  they  are  invested,  like  the  pro])het  of 
old,  with  a heavenly  mantle,  and  speak  with  the  voice  of  ins])iration.  Those  that  ajipear 
after  them  are  but  attendants  in  their  train,  seem  born  only  to  revolve  about  them, 
warmed  by  their  heat  and  shining  by  their  reflected  glory.  Their  works  derive  not  their 
strength  from  momentary  jiassions  or  local  associations,  but  speak  to  feelings  common  to 
mankind,  and  reach  the  innermost  movements  of  the  soul,  and  hence  it  is  that  they  have 
an  immortal  spirit,  which  carries  them  safe  through  the  wreck  of  empires  and  the  changes 
of  opiruon.  Works  like  these  are  formed  by  no  rule,  but  become  a model  and  rtde  to 
other  men.  Few,  however,  among  us  are  permitted  to  show  this  high  excellence.  Ordinary 
minds  must  be  content  to  learn  by  rule,  and  every  good  system  must  have  reference  to 
tbe  many  and  not  to  tbe  few.” — Professor  Sedgwick’s  Discourse  on.  the  Studies  of  the 
University. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


29 


imagination  embodies  them  into  that  congregated  form  which  seems  best 
calculated  for  his  purpose.  Here  it  is  that  the  memory  is  called  into  action ; 
without  precedents  he  cannot  judge,  without  materials  he  cannot  compose. 
Having  now  laid  down  his  plan  of  operations,  he  applies  to  Nature  to 
funiish  him  with  the  means  of  giving  variety  and  originality  to  his  work  ; but, 
to  bind  her  to  his  purpose,  lie  must  have  a settled  knowledge  of  what  he  is 
seeking,  he  must  have  a quickness  of  eye,  to  take  advantage  of  accidental 
arrangements,  and  a plan  of  methodizing  his  ideas,  so  as  to  be  able  to  secure 
what  he  acquires,  without  which  it  will  be  impossible  to  produce  a composition 
upon  which  he  can  calculate  with  any  degree  of  certainty  as  to  its  effects  or 
its  stability,  and  what  be  paints  one  day  he  may  obliterate  the  next.  Com- 
position not  being  an  inherent  quality  of  the  mind,  but  the  result  of  long 
acquaintance  with  the  nature  and  arrangement  of  the  compositions  of  others, 
it  generally  follows  that  all  wayward  and  capricious  compositions,  estab- 
lished neither  upon  natural  grounds  nor  upon  the  scientific  arrangements 
of  those  who  have  preceded  us,  seldom  outlive  their  inventors,  for,  pleasing 
only  by  reason  of  their  novelty,  tliey  gradually  lose  their  interest  as  that 
novelty  vanishes;  or,  as  Doctor  Johnson  expresses  it,  “the  Irregular  com- 
bination of  fanciful  invention  may  delight  awhile  by  that  novelty,  of  which 
the  common  satiety  of  life  sends  us  all  in  quest ; the  pleasures  of  sudden 
wonder  are  soon  exhausted,  and  the  mind  can  only  repose  upon  the  stability 
of  truth.” 

Geometric  forms  in  composition  are  found  to  give  order  and  regularity 
to  an  assemblage  of  figures,  for,  in  fact,  we  can  have  no  idea  of  form 
without  a portion  of  distinct  shape,  which,  being  arranged  so  as  to  make 
one  part  of  the  composition  dependent  on  another  for  its  completion  or 
extension,  produces  an  harmonious  assemblage  of  lines,  independent  of 
the  aid  of  light  and  shade  or  color.  Groups  of  figures,  without  some  appear- 
ance of  geometrical  form  apparent  to  the  eye,  would  produce  a confused 
effect  upon  the  spectator,  in  whose  mind  their  appearance  would  indicate 
one  subject  as  strongly  as  another,  and  look  picturesque,  when  such  character 
might  be  destructive  of  the  impression  intended  to  be  produced.  We  have 
an  excellent  example  of  the  infiuence  of  lines,  or  arrangement  of  parts,  in 
the  composition  of  “Attila,”  by  Raffaellc.  We  see  on  one  side  the  rude, 
irregular  descent  into  the  Campania  of  Rome  of  the  congregated  tribes 
of  the  Goths  and  Vandals,  leaving  fire  and  desolation  in  their  rear,  and 
hurrying  forward  with  savage  wildness  ; opposed  to  which,  enters  the  head 
of  the  Christian  Church,  witli  the  ministers  of  the  cross,  calm,  meek,  dignified 
and  upright,  secure  in  the  protection  of  heaven,  ivhose  messengers  are  seen 
descending,  those  noble  warriors,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  spreading  by 
tlielr  appearance  terror  and  dismay  into  the  hearts  of  Attila  and  his  fol- 
lowers. And  thus  it  is  that  the  painter  is  enabled,  by  the  assemblage  of 
lines  and  forms,  to  produce  upon  the  mind  those  sensations  which  the  poet 
effects  by  a combination  of  words,  or  tbe  composer  of  music  by  an  arrange- 
ment of  expressive  sounds. 


30 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


To  simplicity  and  regularity  of  form  we  are  indebted  for  the  foundation 
of  what  is  great  and  sublime,  for,  as  Johnson  expresses  it,  “sublimity  is 
produced  by  aggregation,  and  littleness  by  dispersion.”  In  architecture 
we  find  this  a main  cause  of  grandeur.  Burke  says:  “Vastness  in  any 
object,  infinity,  succession  and  uniformity  of  parts  in  building,  or  any  object 
in  Nature,  are  all  sources  of  the  sublime,  succession  of  uniform  parts  creating 
a kind  of  artificial  infinite,  and  this  may  be  the  cause  why  a rotund  has 
such  a noble  effect  in  building.”  Having  observed  before  that  the  archi- 
tecture introduced  into  the  works  of  Raffaelle  is  of  a simple  and  uniform 
character,  it  often  seems  to  have  been  his  design  to  carry  out  and  extend 
the  perspective  and  general  form  of  his  plan  by  the  arrangement  and  position 
of  his  figures,  such  as  we  see  in  his  “School  of  Athens” ; and  He  Piles  says : 
“He  found,  in  some  of  his  sketches,  plans  and  scales  of  proportion.”  One 
or  two  memorandums  which  I found  among  the  collections  of  drawings 
left  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  by  General  Guise,  seem  to  confirm  this  obser- 
vation. The  memorandums  are  written  upon  the  side  of  sketches  illustrative 
of  the  remarks,  one  of  which  I have  given  in  Plate  HI,  containing  the  ground 
plan,  also  the  figures  seen  under  the  influence  of  perspective;  the  other, 
showing  a circular  arrangement  of  figures,  such  as  we  see  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  “Transfiguration,”  and  in  the  “Death  of  Ananias,”  viz. : 


*“  Addison,  noticing  how  much  simplicity  of  parts  and  greatness  of  manner  in 
architecture  affect  tlie  mind,  quotes  a passage  of  M.  Feart’s  Parallel  of  the  Ancient  and 
Modern  Architecinre,  “I  am  ohserving,”  says  he,  “a  thing  which  in  my  opinion  is  very 
curious  whence  it  proceeds,  that  in  the  same  quantity  of  superficies  the  one  manner  seems 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


31 


To  Doctor  Barnes,  of  Christ  Church,  I am  indebted  for  the  very  great 
interest  he  took  in  enabling  me  to  procure  copies  of  any  of  the  drawings. 
For  the  translation  of  the  memorandums,  and  remarks  upon  the  designs,  I 
am  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  C.  L.  Eastlake,  Esq.,  R.  A.,  whose  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  compositions  of  Raffaclle  must  give  his  observations  addi- 
tional weight. 

Independent  of  forms  in  composition  most  suitable  to  the  subject,  and 
arranged  in  the  most  natural  manner,  it  is  of  the  first  consequence  that  the 
spectator  ought  to  have  such  a view  of  the  representation  as  will  be  most 
effective  and  uninterrupted.  This  obliges  the  artist  to  design  those  figures 
in  the  near  part  of  the  composition  either  in  kneeling  or  stooping  positions, 
that  they  may  not  intercept  the  figures  behind,  or  to  elevate  those  back- 
ground figures  by  a higher  plane,  such  as  we  see  in  the  “School  of  Athens,” 
the  “Ananias,”  the  “Incendio  del  Borgo,”  “Elymas  the  Sorcerer”  and  others. 
Or  he  may  compose  his  piece  upon  the  principle  of  the  “Heliodorus,”  which, 
leaving  the  space  vacant  in  the  middle  allows  the  eye  of  the  spectator  to 
range  from  the  foreground  to  the  distance  without  interruption ; but,  in 

great  and  magnificent,  and  the  other  poor  and  trifling;  the  reason  is  fine  and  uncommon. 
I say,  then,  that  to  introduce  into  architecture  this  grandeur  of  manner,  we  ought  so  to 
proceed,  that  the  division  of  the  principal  members  of  the  order  may  consist  but  of  few 
parts,  that  they  be  all  great,  and  of  a bold  and  ample  relievo  and  swelling;  and  that  the 
eye  beholding  nothing  little  and  mean,  the  imagination  may  he  more  vigorously  touched 
and  affected  with  the  work  that  stands  before  it.” 

-'Translation  of  the  memorandum  on  the  side  of  the  sketch  representing  circular 
composition : 

“It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  first  thing  to  be  considered  in  an  historical  composition 
is  where  the  point  (id  est,  the  spectator  or  spectator’s  eye)  is  to  be  placed,  whether  in 
the  middle  of  the  work  or  on  one  side,  and  so  to  determine  its  situation  that  the 
important  figures  be  distinctly  visible,  and  not  concealed  by  others,  and  then  begin  the 
design.  It  is  my  opinion,  confirmed  by  the  practice  of  the  most  skillful  men,  that  the 
mode  explained  by  a drawing  in  the  margin  (is  generally  fittest),  viz.:  by  contriving  that 
those  figures  which  are  nearest  to  the  point  should  present  their  backs,  those  further 
removed  their  sides,  and  so  on  in  perspective,  as  if  a circle  were  drawn  and  figures  ranged 
round  it,  so  should  an  historical  composition  be  designed.” 

In  illustration  of  the  above,  supposing  an  action  to  be  represented  in  a circle,  which 
would  be  quite  natural  if  the  object  of  attention  were  in  the  center,  the  spectator  might 
either  view  it  so  as  to  be  himself  without  the  circle,  or  be  supposed  within  it.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  nearest  figures  would  have  their  sides  toward  him,  in  the  former  their 
backs.  Thus,  when  the  spectator  sees  a semicircle,  he  completes  the  circle  by  his  forming 
a part.  This  arrangement  was  adopted  by  the  early  Italian  painters  in  their  sacred 
subjects,  and  from  its  fitness  was  never  abandoned  by  Raffaelle.  The  Madonna  di  Foligno 
and  the  Dresden  Madonna  are  remarkable  exam]des,  as  in  these  pictures  the  St.  Francis 
in  the  first,  and  the  Pope  Sixtus  in  the  other,  turn  to  the  spectator  who  contemplates  the 
work,  and  intercedes  for  them.  The  object,  in  short,  by  this  semicircular  arrangement 
was  to  mix  up  the  spectator  with  the  divine  or  sainted  personages  represented,  and  to 
make  him  feel  in  their  presence. 

But  in  more  dramatic  representations,  in  which  the  spectator  might  be  interested 
but  not  a party  concerned,  Raffaelle  adopted  the  more  picturesque  arrangement,  and 
after  him  this  was  unfortunately  applied  to  devotional  subjects.  The  drawing  hy 
Raffaelle  and  the  note  recommend  the  picturesque  arrangement,  but  as  the  whole  works 
of  the  master  are  the  best  commentaries  on  his  note,  it  may  safely  be  affirmed,  that  he 
could  not  have  intended  this  principle  to  apply  to  votive  pictures;  at  present,  indeed,  in 
this  country,  when  altar  pieces,  and  especially  mere  assemblages  of  sacred  personages, 
are  rarely  painted,  the  directions  contained  in  Raffaelle’s  note  may  he  considered  of 
universal  application;  it  is  only  in  the  critical  history  of  the  art  that  they  might  lead  to 
false  conclusions. — C.  L.  E. 


32 


AX  ESSAY  OX  THE 


wliatever  form  his  composition  develops  itself,  it  is  not  more  necessary  to 
preserve  such  form  in  the  strongest  character  than  it  is  to  give  the  spectator 
the  most  pictorial  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  subject.  To  enable  him 
to  judge  of  this  quality,  it  will  be  necessary  not  only  to  lay  down  a ground 
plan,  but  to  model  the  groups  and  individual  figures,  as  we  know  to  have 
been  the  practice  of  the  best  artists,  from  Michael  Angelo  and  Raffaelle 
down  to  the  present,  which  will  also,  even  though  roughly  executed,  suggest 
the  most  natural  effects  of  the  light  and  shade."' 

Having  decided  upon  his  general  form  of  composition,  the  several 
portions  of  the  design  next  claim  his  attention.  Those  portions  of  most 
consequence  to  the  illustration  of  the  story  are  to  be  brought  into  notice, 
while  other  parts  are  made  subservient,  by  being  thrown  into  shade  or 
more  intercepted  by  their  situations.  Action  and  repose,  masses  convex 
and  concave,  lines  regular  or  picturesque,  spaces  diminishing  or  increasing, 
are  all  to  be  combined  in  producing  an  harmonious  result  upon  the  eye 
and  mind  of  the  spectator. 

We  have  noticed  the  peculiar  properties  of  objects  under  the  influence 
of  perspective,  viz. : circular  forms  becoming  elliptical,  spaces  diminishing 
as  they  recede,  objects  intercepting  those  behind,  while  those  on  the  fore- 
ground possess  more  detail  and  minutia?.  These  qualities  are,  therefore, 
to  be  engrafted  upon  the  several  portions  of  the  composition,  that  it  may 
have  the  appearance  of  truth,  and  enable  the  artist  to  give  his  work  the 
firmness  of  Nature.  In  selecting  examples  illustrative  of  these  remarks,  it 
will  be  sufficient  to  give  one  or  two  of  the  most  palpable,  that  the  student 

""Translations  of  the  ineinoranduni  at  the  side  of  the  drawing  given  in  Plate  III, 
Fig.  1: 

“This  is  the  mode  the  painter  should  observe  in  composing  his  histories,  so  that  the 
disposition  of  the  masses  should  be  unconstrained,  as  if  the  composition  followed  the 
advancing  sight  in  order  that  the  history  or  picture  may  he  satisfactory  to  the  spectator, 
and  particularly  to  the  experienced  spectator.  For  if  arranged  without  this  rule,  the 
said  history  will  be  put  together  defectively,  this  (viz.:  the  mode  alluded  to)  being  the 
true  practice  adopted  by  the  most  skilled  and  intelligent  in  the  art.  This  will  appear 
by  cons>dting  the  works  of  those  painters  who  are  most  famous;  it  is  from  their  adherence 
to  this  rule  that  their  works  have  been  so  much  praised,  and  with  the  best  reason,  for 
this  is  the  true  principle.” 

The  rule  here  alluded  to,  and  which  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  drawing  which 
accompanies  it,  relates  to  depth  of  composition,  as  opposed  to  superficial  or  basso  relievo 
composition;  the  mere  surface  is  capable  in  variety,  in  height,  and  in  width;  but  these 
varieties  may  exist  while  there  is  no  variety  whatever  in  the  plan;  the  figures  should 
tlierefore  occupy  the  extent  of  the  ground  plan  as  completely  as  when  brought  to  the 
surface  they  appear  to  ocoipy  the  height  and  breadth  of  the  surface  or  face  of  the 
jiicture.  Tims  the  three  possible  dimensions  are  occupied,  the  art  being  generally  concealed 
iiy  avoiding  too  regular  a variety,  and  by  doubling  the  masses  somewhere.  It  only 
remains  to  l)e  observed,  that  of  the  three  applications  of  varied  arrangement,  that  of  the 
deiplh  is  the  most  strictly  picturesque,  because  it  most  effectually  gets  rid  of  the  flat 
surface,  and  suggests  foreshortened  limbs  and  figures,  which  are  most  to  be  met  with  in 
the  latest  works  of  Titian,  Raffaelle,  and  Michael  Angelo;  but  Corregio,  who  was  from 
the  beginning  devoted  to  gradation  in  forms  (perspective)  as  well  as  chiaroscuro,  was 
also  an  early  lover  of  deptli  in  composition,  and  often  of  foreshortening. — C.  L.  E. 

r'ig.  2 is  part  of  a Roman  basso  relievo,  from  which  Raffaelle  took  the  ceremony  of 
the  Sacrifice  at  Lystra. 

Fig.  3 shows  his  adaptation  of  the  ideas  of  otliers  to  his  own  purpose,  being  a figure 
of  Masaccio’s,  which  is  converted  into  his  St.  Paul  preaching.  Vide  Reynolds’s  Twelfth 
iJiscoiirse. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


33 


may  be  made  aware  of  their  character,  after  which  the  whole  range  of  com- 
position, from  the  revival  of  painting  down  to  our  own  time,  will  he  rendered 
subservient  to  his  investigation.  As  it  is  the  character  of  spaces  to  diminish 
as  they  recede  from  the  eye,  we  often  find  in  the  works  of  Ralfaelle  and 
others  this  feature  engrafted  upon  portions  of  their  groups,  as  in  Fig.  2, 
part  of  the  “Cartoon  of  Ananias.” 


Fig.  2. 


As  it  is  the  character  of  objects  to  intercept  others  more  or  less  as 
they  recede  from  the  foreground,  and  as  it  is  their  character  also  to  diminish 
and  possess  less  of  detail  by  their  receding,  we  perceive  this  principle  carried 
into  the  works  of  the  great  founders  of  the  art  in  a variety  of  ways.  We 
can  trace  it  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  basso  relievos,  in  the  figures  and 
heads  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Ralfaelle,  and  in  the  works  of  those  who  have 
collected  from  the  great  stores  of  Nature  and  art.  The  example.  Fig.  3, 
is  from  Titian,  part  of  a subject  formerly  in  the  Church  of  St.  Nicola  de 
Fiari,  at  Venice,  now  in  Rome. 

This  regularity  of  diminution  imparts  to  a work  a character  of  sim- 
plicity, and,  at  the  same  time,  assists  the  artist  in  giving  depth  to  his  com- 
position, one  figure  acting  as  a background  to  the  other. 

This  regularity  of  diminution  not  only  assists  in  giving  regularity  and 
simplicity  to  a work,  but  enables  the  artist  to  carry  the  eye  of  the  spectator 
into  the  depths  of  his  composition.  We  also  find  it  often  employed  in  giving 
solidity  and  firmness  to  those  heads  or  objects  nearest  the  eye,  one  portion 
acting  as  a background  to  the  other,  giving  to  the  whole  that  advantage 
which  arises  from  the  size,  detail  and  firmness  of  foreground  objects  in 


34 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


Fig.  3. 


Nature.  Fig.  4 is  a further  illustration  of  the  same  principle,  being  part  of 
a design  of  Rubens,  the  picture  of  the  “Woman  Taken  in  Adultery,”  in  the 
collection  of  Mr.  Miles. 


In  following  up  the  examination  of  composition  into  its  component 
parts  we  find  it  necessary  that  they  should  all  combine  to  produce  one 
result  upon  the  spectator.  RaflFaelle,  in  extending  his  composition  into 
the  surrounding  parts,  employs  his  whole  power  in  illustrating  his  story. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


35 


either  by  episodes  which  embellish  and  enrich  it,  or  by  figures  expressive 
of  the  circumstances  which  have  preceded  it,  or  by  conveying  its  effects 
after  completion.  Some  we  perceive  engaged  in  relating  the  event  to  those 
entering,  or  unable  to  view  it  from  their  situation  in  the  picture.  Others 
of  various  ages  and  of  different  sexes,  while  they  give  variety  to  the  work, 
enable  him  to  develop  its  effect  by  a variety  of  expression  and  action,  by 
extending  the  lines  productive  of  such  sensations,  or  lines  by  a union  of 
several  parts  leading  the  eye  by  their  direction  to  the  principal  point  of 
the  story,  or  giving  bulk  and  strength  to  the  foreground  figures.  Add  to 
these,  figures  repeating  by  their  form  the  principal  points,  so  as  to  give 
those  richness  by  extending  their  shape,  or  productive  of  harmony  by  their 
action  and  expression,  emanating  from  those  of  the  principal  actors.  These 
remarks  more  immediately  apply  to  the  mental  portion  of  the  work,  and 
of  works  of  the  highest  department  in  the  art ; but  many  of  them  also  may 
be  made  applicable  to  other  branches,  such  as  the  combining  of  several  heads 
for  the  purpose  of  preserving  a mass  of  flesh  color,  and  to  prevent  spottiness 
in  the  effect ; or  giving  pleasure  to  the  eye  by  the  forms  taking  pleasing 
shapes ; or  assisting  deception  by  lines  combining  to  give  strength  and 
magnitude  to  the  foreground  objects,  or  diminished  delicacy  to  the  more 
distant.  In  short,  a knowledge  of  the  higher  requisites  of  painting  is  of 
the  greatest  importance  in  all  the  departments,  whether  in  giving  dignity 
to  portraiture,  such  as  Titian’s,  or  to  landscapes,  such  as  his  also,  and  those 
of  Annibale  Carrache,  Salvator  Rosa  or  Nicola  Poussin.  Toward  gaining 
perfection  in  poetry  we  find  writers  recommending  this  course  of  investiga- 
tion. Addison  says : “A  poet  should  be  very  well  versed  in  everything 

that  is  noble  and  stately  in  the  productions  of  art,  whether  it  appears  in 
painting  or  statuary ; in  the  great  works  of  architecture,  which  are  in  their 
present  glory,  or  in  the  ruins  of  those  which  flourished  in  former  ages. 
Such  advantages  as  these  help  to  open  a man’s  thoughts,  and  to  enlarge 
his  imagination,  and  will,  therefore,  have  their  influence  on  all  kinds  of 
writing,  if  the  author  knows  how  to  make  right  use  of  them.”  Reynolds 
recommends  “that  all  the  inventions  and  thoughts  of  the  ancients,  whether 

The  same  remarks  wliich  Doctor  .Tohnson  applies  to  poetry  may  be  here  made  use 
of  to  indicate  the  sources  of  instruction  for  those  who  aspire  to  the  higher  walks  of 
painting:  “By  the  general  consent  of  critics,  the  first  praise  of  genius  is  due  to  the 
writer  of  an  epic  poem,  as  it  requires  an  assemblage  of  all  the  powers  which  are  singly 
sufficient  for  other  comiiositions.  Poetry  is  the  art  of  uniting  pleasure  with  truth,  by 
calling  imagination  to  the  help  of  reason.  Ejuc  poetry  undertakes  to  teach  the  most 
important  truths  by  the  most  pleasing  precepts,  and  therefore  relates  some  great  event 
in  the  most  affecting  manner.  History  must  supply  the  writer  with  the  rudiments  of 
narration,  which  he  must  improve  and  exalt  by  nobler  art,  must  animate  by  dramatic 
energy,  and  diversify  by  retrospection  and  anticipation;  morality  must  teach  him  the 
exact  bounds  and  different  shades  of  vice  and  virtue;  from  jmlicy,  and  the  practice  of 
life,  he  has  to  learn  the  discrimination  of  character,  and  the  tendency  of  the  passions,  either 
single  or  combined;  and  physiology  must  su])ply  him  with  illustrations  and  images.  To 
put  these  materials  to  poetical  use,  is  required  an  imagination  capable  of  painting  Nature 
and  realizing  fiction.  Nor  is  he  yet  a poet  till  he  has  attained  the  whole  extension  of 
his  language,  distinguished  all  the  delicacies  of  phrase,  and  all  the  colors  of  words, 
and  learned  to  adjust  their  different  sounds  to  all  the  varieties  of  metrical  modulation.” — 
Johnson’s  Life  of  Milton. 


36 


AX  ESSAY  ON  THE 


conveyed  to  us  in  statues,  has  reliefs,  intaglios,  cameos  or  coins,  are  to 
be  sought  after  and  carefully  studied.  The  genius  that  hovers  over  these 
venerable  relics  may  be  called  the  father  of  modern  art.  The  collection 
of  the  thoughts  of  the  ancients  which  Raffaelle  made  with  so  much  trouble 
is  a proof  of  his  opinion  on  this  subject.  Such  collections  may  be  now 
made  with  much  more  ease  by  means  of  an  art  scarce  known  in  his  time. 
I mean  that  of  engraving,  by  which,  at  an  easy  rate,  every  man  may  now 
avail  himself  of  the  inventions  of  antiquity.”  He  also  recommends  taking 
another  view'  of  the  same  figure,  either  by  modeling  it  or  setting  a person 
in  the  same  attitude.  This  will  give  the  student  a quick  knowledge,  wherein 
consists  the  beauty  and  character  of  the  different  great  masters ; or  by 
altering  it  to  suit  his  subject,  such  as  the  figure  of  “St.  Paul,”  by  Masaccio, 
introduced  in  “Paul  Preaching,”  by  Raffaelle,  or  the  “Sacrifice  at  Lystra,” 
Plate  II.  To  conclude,  I can  only  repeat  the  words  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds: 
“Study,  therefore,  the  great  works  of  the  great  masters  forever.  Study 
as  nearly  as  you  can  in  the  oi’der,  in  the  manner  and  on  the  principles  on 
w hich  they  studied.  Study  Nature  attentively,  but  alw  ays  with  those  masters 
in  your  company.  Consider  them  as  models  wdiich  you  are  to  imitate,  and 
at  the  same  time  as  rivals,  with  whom  you  are  to  contend.” 

ARRANGEMENT. 

Arrangement,  though  not  partaking  of  that  high  quality  wdilch  distin- 
guishes composition,  yet,  nevertheless,  embraces  a knowledge  of  those  char- 
acteristic features  to  be  found  pervading  the  general  appearances  of  Nature, 
and  to  be  employed  in  giving  a truth  and  vigor  to  assemblages  of  lines, 
shades  and  colors.  All  objects  wdiose  images  enter  the  eye  are  subject 
to  certain  laws,  which  regulate  their  form,  and  assign  to  them  situations 
in  the  picture  which  such  forms  indicate,  and  which,  having  been  often 
observed,  have  obtained  a general  consent  as  to  their  truth  and  natural 
character.  To  know,  therefoi'e,  these  arrangements  observable  in  Nature 
is  absolutely  necessary,  that  we  may  employ  such  knowledge  in  producing 
the  same  results  in  painting,  especially  as  we  find  the  works  of  those 
artists  who  have  thus  combined  their  skill  in  arrangement  give  the  greatest 
pleasure  to  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  This  gratification  arises  from  the 
several  images  being  depicted  in  their  most  characteristic  features.  In 
looking  abroad  upon  the  face  of  Nature,  for  example,  in  a wide  extent  of 
country,  where  the  eye  can  take  a comprehensive  observation,  we  notice 
toward  the  horizon  a multitude  of  parallel  lines  stretching  across  the  land- 
scape. The  lines  crossing  them,  being  foreshortened,  lose  their  breadth, 
wliile  the  perpendicular  lines  of  objects  lose  their  consequence  owing  to  their 
diminution  from  distance;  but,  as  they  approach  toward  the  foreground, 
we  perceive  that  thev  gain  their  ascendancy  and  become  more  rugged  in 
the  outline  and  stronger  in  effect  from  their  shadowed  portions  being  larger 
and  darker,  owing  to  their  nearness  to  the  eye.  Being  acquainted  with  these 


PLATE  IV 


/Vt  ft/J  /-V  J'  Jpii‘ 


PLATE  IV* 


ty 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


37 


facts,  we  can  produce  such  an  arrangement  as  shall  have  the  appearance 
of  truth,  and  become  enabled  to  heighten  in  effect  the  arrangements  of 
natural  representation,  and,  by  the  addition  of  colors  whose  properties 
belong  to  near  objects,  by  the  addition  of  light  and  dark  coming  in  contact, 
which  gives  distinctness  and  firmness,  by  the  introduction  of  figures  and  other 
objects,  we  can  assist  the  perspective  by  their  assuming  forms  more  or  less 
under  its  influence,  according  to  their  situation. 

We  know  that  quietness  and  regularity  give  dignity  to  part  of  a com- 
position while  their  lines  contrast  with  others  expressive  of  bustle  or  pictur- 
esque assemblage  of  forms.  We  have  noticed  this  exemplified  in  the  “Attila.” 
etc.  We  see  it  also  in  Fig.  5,  part  of  the  “Heliodorus,”  where  the  heads 


Fig.  5. 


of  the  figures  who  bear  the  chair  of  the  Pope  surround  him  with  studied 
regularity,  giving  calmness  by  the  arrangement,  and  firmness  by  the  per- 
spective appearance  of  a column  upon  whose  base  he  is  elevated.'* 

This  regularity  of  diminution  and  perspective  effect  has  been  noticed 
principally  in  the  arrangement  of  the  heads.  It  is  also  to  be  observed  in 
the  base  lines  of  the  several  compositions  of  the  figures,  such  as  we  observe 
upon  this  side  of  the  “Heliodorus,”  where  the  Pope  enters,  marking  the 

Lanzi,  speaking  of  this  work,  says,  “In  the  course  of  this  year,  1512,  Raffaelle  was 
employed  in  the  second  chamber  on  the  subject  of  Heliodorus  driven  from  the  temple  by 
the  prayers  of  Onias  the  high  priest,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  pictures  of  the  place. 
In  this  painting  the  armed  vision  that  appears  to  Heliodorus  scatters  lightning  from  his 
hand,  while  the  neighing  steed  is  heard  amidst  the  attendant  thunder.  In  the  numerous 
bands,  some  of  which  are  plundering  the  riches  of  the  temple,  and  in  others  ignorant  of 
the  surprise  and  terror  exhibited  in  Heliodorus,  consternation,  amazement,  joy,  and 
abasement,  and  a host  of  passions  are  expressed.  In  this  work,  and  in  others  of  these 
chambers,  Raffaelle  says  Mengs)  gave  to  painting  all  the  augmentation  it  could  receive 
after  Michael  Angelo.  In  this  picture  he  introduced  the  portrait  of  Julius  the  Second, 


38 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


line  from  the  foreground  to  the  distance,  assisting  the  perspective  by  such 
means  as  to  lead  the  eye  into  the  depths  of  the  composition,  while  it  gives 
the  appearance  of  truth  and  simplicity  of  natural  diminution.  See  Plate  IV. 
I have  given  an  additional  Plate  IV*,  part  of  the  “Dispute  of  the  Sacra- 
ment,” where  this  disposition  is  more  evident.  Independent  of  this  mode 
of  arrangement  being  of  use  in  giving  uniformity  to  irregular  portions  of 
a composition,  it  is  of  great  advantage  in  directing  the  eye  to  the  principal 
parts  of  the  picture  by  means  of  the  perspective  appearance  of  the  line. 
Also,  by  producing  such  arrangement  either  by  the  base  of  the  group  or 
the  introduction  of  accidental  objects  to  assist  such  deceptive  diminution, 
we  counteract  the  effects  of  false  perspective  which  the  base  line  of  the 
group  sometimes  produces,  for,  in  conducting  the  design,  the  heads  and 
upper  portions  only  of  the  composition  are  attended  to  in  the  first  instance, 
without  reflecting  how  the  parts  which  come  in  contact  with  the  ground  wdll 
appear  when  terminated  according  to  their  time  position  in  the  picture. 

A knowledge  of  arrangement  enables  us  yet  further  to  heighten  the 
gratification  of  the  spectator  hy  engrafting  upon  the  work  those  forms 
found  in  the  compositions  of  the  most  celebrated  artists.  This  knowledge 
it  is  which  enables  the  poet  to  give  so  pleasing  and  vivid  descriptions  of 
scenery,  often  gratifying  the  imagination  more  than  an  actual  survey  of 
the  scene  he  describes.  As  Addison  remarks,  “He  takes  indeed  the  land- 
scape after  her,  but  gives  it  more  vigorous  touches,  heightens  its  beauty  and 
enlivens  the  whole  piece,  that  the  images  which  flow  from  the  objects  them- 
selves appear  weak  and  faint  in  comparison  with  those  that  come  from  the 
expressions.”  A knowledge  of  arrangement  enables  the  artist  to  follow 
up  and  extend  lines  and  forms  often  only  hinted  at  in  Nature.  Those  parts 
which  possess  a strong  local  character  he  preserves  as  leading  points  to 
an  harmonious  assemblage  of  lines,  w'hile  portions  possessing  beauty  he 
enshrines  in  masses  of  repose,  or  surrounds  them  with  forms  and  colors 
which  add  to  their  effect  upon  the  spectator.  Even  in  the  wild,  rugged 
scenes  of  savage  grandeur,  where  rocks,  trees  and  clouds  combine  in  awful 
magnificence,  a know  ledge  of  arrangement  is  necessary  to  preserve  this  earth- 
quake-like appearance.  In  the  wmrks  of  Salvator  Rosa  the  student  will 
find  many  examples  of  this  mode  of  arrangement,  every  part  of  the  work 
uniting  “in  dreadful  harmony.”  To  acquire  a knowledge  of  beautiful  scenery, 
founded  upon  ach'ial  perspective,  or  an  agreeable  assemblage  of  lines  and 

whose  zeal  and  authority  is  represented  in  Onias.  He  appears  in  a litter,  borne  by  his 
grooms,  in  the  manner  in  which  he  was  accustomed  to  repair  to  the  Vatican  to  view 
this  work.”  In  these  heads  Ralfaelle  has  given  the  portraits  of  his  pupils,  M.  Antonio 
and  Julio  Romano,  with  the  Pope’s  secretary,  etc.  For  this  anachronism  Raffaele  has 
lieen  blamed  by  the  critics,  without  considering  that  it  was  the  only  way  the  painter  had 
of  connecting  the  Jewish  with  the  Christian  church,  and  exemplifying  the  temples  of  both 
as  the  sacred  depositories  for  those  funds  which  were  to  be  given  out  to  the  widow  and 
the  or]ihan  poor.  Without  detracting  from  the  great  merit  of  Ralfaelle,  we  may  rest 
assured  tliat  these  works  were  of  too  much  importance  not  to  be  watched  with  the  greatest 
vigilance,  and  assisted  in  their  moral  efficacy  by  all  the  learning  within  the  walls  of  the 
Vatican.  Tliose  who  wish  to  see  how  close  Ralfaelle  often  kept  to  the  history,  may 
examine  tlie  whole  story  in  II  Maccabees,  Chapter  III. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


89 


forms,  he  ought  to  study  tlie  arrangements  of  Claude,  Cuyp  and  those  of 
Turner,  whose  works  are  filled  with  the  various  qualities  which  constitute 
the  true  poetry  of  painting,  and  the  power  of  giving  extent  and  magnificence 
in  tlie  highest  degree. 


HARMONY. 

Harmony  in  painting  is  the  connection  and  agreement  of  one  part  with 
another,  either  as  regards  form,  light  and  shade  or  color.  This  agreement 
proceeds  either  from  a succession  of  the  same  forms  in  different  degrees 
of  distinctness,  such  as  arise  when  we  cast  a stone  into  water,  producing 
a succession  of  undulating  circles,  or  by  one  form  depending  upon  its 
adjoining  for  its  completion  and  unity,  as  is  the  case  in  poetry  r"'  or  the 
harshness  of  isolated  forms  may  be  broken  down  and  harmonized  with  the 
whole  by  their  being  hinted  at  or  faintly  repeated  in  various  portions  of 
tlie  picture. 


FORM. 

Burke,  speaking  of  beautiful  forms,  says : “As  perfectly  beautiful 

bodies  are  not  composed  of  angular  parts,  so  those  parts  never  continue 
long  in  the  same  right  line.  They  vary  their  direction  every  moment, 
and  they  change  under  the  eye  by  a deviation  continually  carrying  on,  but 
for  whose  beginning  or  end  you  will  find  it  difficult  to  ascertain  a point.” 
All  authors  from  Aristotle  to  De  Quincey  having  treated  of  the  affections 
of  the  mind  as  if  the  avenues  to  each  sensation  were  the  same,  it  will, 
perhaps,  lead  us  to  a more  clear  definition  of  the  properties  which  belong 
to  vision  exclusively,  by  confining  the  observations  on  form,  shade  or  color 
to  their  effects  upon  the  eye.  As  the  forms  of  all  objects  enter  the  eye 
through  a circular  aperture,  those  objects  containing  a similar  continuity 
of  form  fall  most  agreeably  upon  the  organ  of  vision,  and  are  seen,  as  it 
were,  at  a single  glance,  while  objects  possessing  sharp  angles  seem  less  in 
harmony  with  the  ffow  of  light  which  accompanies  their  entrance,  and  require 
repeated  examinations  to  gain  a knowledge  of  their  exact  form.  For  example, 
if  a circle  be  presented  to  the  eye,  we  are  incontinently  carried  around  the 
whole  circumference,  whereas,  when  we  look  upon  a square  or  cubical  form, 
it  requires  four  separate  examinations,  each  producing  a separate  effort. 
N ow,  as  the  images  of  all  objects  are  not  only  viewed  through  a circular 
aperture,  but  are  also  received  upon  a circular  surface,  and  as  the  rays 

Doctor  Johnson  says,  “y\s  liarmony  is  the  end  of  poetical  measures,  no  jiart  of 
the  verse  ought  to  he  so  separated  from  the  rest  as  not  to  remain  still  more  harmonious 
than  prose,  or  to  show,  hy  the  disposition  of  the  tones,  that  it  is  a jiart  of  a verse." 
Further  on  he  remarks,  “When  a single  syllable  is  cut  off  from  the  rest,  it  must  either 
be  united  to  the  line  with  which  the  sense  connects  it,  or  he  found  alone.  If  it  be  united 
to  the  other  line,  it  corrujits  its  harmony;  if  di.sjointed,  it  must  stand  alone,  and  with 
regard  to  music  be  superfluous;  for  there  is  no  harmony  in  a single  sound,  because  it 
has  no  jiroportion  to  another." — K ambler,  No.  90. 


40 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


by  which  such  images  are  conveyed  fade  imperceptibly  as  they  depart  from 
the  center  of  vision,  these  may  be  some  of  the  causes  why  circular  or  undu- 
lating forms  fall  most  agreeably  upon  the  eye,  especially  if  we  consider  that 
the  organ  itself  moves,  as  it  were,  in  a circular  motion,  by  means  of  its 
muscles,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  termed,  the  ball  and  socket.*®  There  are 
other  reasons  why  circular  forms  are  most  agreeable  to  the  eye,  arising 
from  an  association  of  ideas,  such  as  the  soft,  circular  forms  of  children 
and  youth,  compared  with  the  rigid  and  angular  forms  of  age ; or  flowing, 
undulating  lines,  conveying  a greater  idea  of  motion  than  lines  crossing  each 
other  in  abrupt  opposite  directions.  Hannony  consisting  of  a certain  pro- 
portion of  one  part  with  another,  no  figure  or  shape  can  be  harmonious 
or  agreeable  unless  this  arrangement  is  complete,  so  as  to  produce  a unity 
to  the  eye,  or  a balance  of  one  portion  with  another,  such  as  the  prepon- 
derance of  perpendicular  lines  being  counteracted  by  those  running  in  a 
horizontal  direction,  or  oblique  lines  antagonized  by  opposite  obliquities, 
convex  by  the  presence  of  concave,  all  mingling  together  in  regular  adjust- 
ment, as  in  music  we  find  harmony  produced  by  a combination  of  sounds 
different  in  themselves,  yet  affecting  the  mind,  through  the  medium  of  the 
ear,  with  one  result.  Aristotle,  in  his  “Treatise  on  Poetry,”  says : “Beauty 
consists  in  magnitude  and  order,  but  no  animal,  or  other  thing,  can  be 
beautiful  that  is  either  too  small  or  too  large  for  the  eye  to  take  cognizance 
of  its  several  component  parts  at  once,  as  in  that  case  the  whole,  or  unity, 
is  lost  to  the  spectator.”  That  extension  of  form  so  conducive  to  harmony, 
and  productive  of  an  agreeable  effect  upon  the  eye,  is  often  taken  advantage 
of  in  regulating  the  boundary  line  to  a composition ; thus,  we  often  see  a 
single  head  of  a child,  or  a group  consisting  of  an  assemblage  of  curved 
lines,  reach  the  eye  more  agreeably  through  a circular  frame,  as  in  that 
case  the  sensations  which  arise  from  such  a combination  are  not  disturbed 


“One  of  the  many  points  of  superiority  which  the  eye  possesses  over  the  ordinary 

camera  oltscura  is  derived  from  its  spherical  shape  adapting  the  retina  to  receive  every 

portion  of  the  images  produced  by  refraction,  which  are  themselves  curved:  whereas,  had 
they  been  received  on  a plane  surface,  as  they  usually  are  in  the  camera  obscura,  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  image  would  have  been  indistinct.  This  spherical  form  is 
]ireserved  l)y  means  of  the  firm  membranes  which  protect  the  eye,  and  which  are  termed 
its  coats;  and  the  transparent  media  which  they  enclose,  and  which  effect  the  convergence 
of  the  rays,  are  termed  the  humors  of  the  eye.  There  are  in  this  organ  three  principal 
coats  and  three  humors,  composing  altogether  what  is  called  the  globe  of  the  eye.  The 

outermost  coat,  which  is  termed  the  sclerotica,  is  exceedingly  firm  and  dense,  and  gives 

to  the  globe  of  tbe  eye  the  mechanical  suj)port  it  requires  for  the  performance  of  its  delicate 
functions;  it  is  ])crforated  l)ehind  by  the  optic  nerve,  which  passes  onward  to  be  expanded 
into  tbe  retina.  The  sclerotica  does  not  extend  farther  than  about  four-fifths  of  the  globe 
of  tlie  eye,  its  place  in  front  being  supplied  Ijy  a transjiarent  convex  meml)rane,  called  the 
cornea,  which  is  more  prominent  than  the  rest  of  the  eyeball;  a line  passing  through  the 
center  of  the  cornea  and  the  center  of  the  glolie  of  the  eye  is  called  the  axis  of  the  eye. 
The  sclerotica  is  lined  internally  l>y  the  choroid  coat,  which  is  chiefly  made  up  of  a tissue 
of  l)lood  vessels  for  siqiplying  nourishment  to  the  eye.  It  has  on  its  inner  surface  a layer 
of  a dark  colored  viscid  secretion,  known  by  tbe  name  of  the  pigmentum  nigrum,  or  black 
pigment.  Its  use  is  to  alisorb  all  the  light  which  may  happen  to  be  irregularly  scattered 
through  the  eye,  in  consequence  of  reflection  from  different  quarters;  and  it  serves, 
tlierefore,  the  same  ])urpose  as  the  black  paint  with  whicli  the  inside  of  ojitical  instruments, 
such  as  telesco])es,  microscopes  and  camerae  ol)scurae  are  darkened.  Within  the  pigmentum 
nigrum,  and  almost  in  immediate  contact  with  it,  the  retina  is  expanded,  forming  an 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


41 


or  interrupted.  So,  likewise,  the  sight  may  be  conveyed  with  greater 
pleasure,  and  with  an  increased  perspective  effect,  through  a square  or  oblong 
aperture,  by  having  the  horizontal  and  perpendicular  lines  of  the  frame 
repeated  as  they  depart  from  the  eye,  in  diminished  lengths  and  strengths 
and  magnitude,  as  in  Plate  V ; also  in  the  curved  and  horizontal  lines  of  the 


architecture  of  the  “School  of  Athens,”  the  “Heliodorus,”  etc.  This  mixing 
up  the  frame  or  opening  with  the  work  is  often  of  the  utmost  importance, 
even  when  extended  to  the  effect  of  light  and  shade  and  color,  as  it  breaks 


exceedingly  thin  and  delicate  layer  of  nervous  matter,  supported  by  a fine  membrane. 
More  than  three-fourths  of  the  globe  of  the  eye  are  filled  with  the  vitreous  humor,  which 
has  the  appearance  of  a pellucid  and  elastic  jelly,  contained  in  an  exceedingly  delicate 
texture  of  cellular  substance.  The  crystalline  humor,  which  has  the  shape  of  a double 
convex  lens,  is  formed  of  a denser  material  than  any  of  the  other  humors,  and  occupies 
the  fore  jiart  of  the  globe  of  the  eye,  immediately  in  front  of  the  vitreous  humor,  w'hich 
is  there  hollow'ed  to  receive  it.  The  space  which  iTitervenes  between  the  lens  and  the 
cornea  is  filled  with  a watery  secretion  called  the  aqueous  humor.  This  space  is  divided 
into  an  anterior  and  posterior  chamber  by  a flat  circular  partition,  termed  the  iris.  The 
iris  has  a central  perforation,  called  the  pupil,  and  it  is  fixed  to  the  edge  of  the  choroid 
coat  by  a white  elastic  ring,  called  the  ciliary  liyament.  The  posterior  surface  of  the  iris 
is  called  the  uvea,  and  is  lined  with  a dark  brown  pigment.  The  structure  of  the  iris  is 
very  peculiar,  being  composed  of  two  layers  of  contractile  fibers;  the  one  forming 
concentric  circles,  the  other  disposed  like  radii,  between  the  outer  and  inner  margin. 
When  the  former  act,  the  pupil  is  contracted;  when  the  latter  act,  the  breadth  of  the  iris 
is  diminished,  and  the  pupil  of  course  is  dilated.  By  varying  the  size  of  the  pupil,  the 
quantity  of  light  admitted  into  the  interior  of  the  eye  is  regulated  and  accommodated  to 
the  sensibility  of  the  retina.  When  the  intensit)^  of  the  light  would  be  injurious  to  that 
highly  delicate  organ,  the  pupil  is  instantly  contracted,  so  as  to  exclude  the  greater 
portion;  and  on  the  contrary,  when  the  light  is  too  feeble  it  is  dilated,  in  order  to  admit 
as  large  a quantity  as  possible.  The  iris  also  serves  to  intercept  such  rays  as  would  have 
fallen  on  parts  of  the  crystalline  lens  less  fitted  to  produce  their  regular  refraction.” — 
Doctor  Royet’s  Bridgewater  Treatise. 


42 


AX  ESSAY  OX  THE 


down  tliat  harshness  which  otheinvise  attracts  the  eye  Avhile  examining  the 
work  contained  within  it.^‘ 


CHIARO  OSCURO. 

Tliat  harmony  which  is  produced  by  chiaro  oscuro,  or  by  the  means 
of  black  and  white,  independent  of  color,  depends  upon  the  quantities  of 
light  and  dark  employed  and  the  disposition  of  them,  sometimes  meeting 
in  extremes  of  opposition,  in  other  portions  gliding  away  with  imper- 
ceptible softness  into  undefined  spaces,  the  light  sometimes  falling  on  com- 
bined objects,  giving  out  a faint  halo  around  the  group;  in  some  instances 
darting  out  through  the  dark  masses  of  shadow  in  shai'p  defined  shapes, 
creating  by  their  whole  arrangement  that  mixture  of  harsh  and  tender 
gradations  obseiwable  in  Nature.  The  power  of  producing  a variety  of 
pleasing  sensations  upon  the  eye  mainly  rests  on  the  conduct  of  the  chiaro 
oscuro.  Objects  are  rendered  either  strong  or  delicate,  according  as  they 
advance  or  retire  on  the  perspective  plane  of  the  picture.  Parts  are  forced 
upon  the  spectators  attention  by  their  clear-defined  character,  and  assisted 
from  contrast  by  groups  of  Indistinct  images  imbued  with  the  properties 
of  middle  tint.  The  quantities  of  dark  that  are  to  be  allowed  to  interrupt 
or  pass  within  the  boundaries  of  the  masses  of  light,  or  the  size  of  those 
portions  of  light  which  are  found  within  the  dominion  of  shade,  either 
giving  depth  to  it  by  contrast  or  destroying  its  preponderance  by  pro- 
ducing a union  with  the  light,  are  entirely  at  the  guidance  of  the  artist, 
whose  skill  is  shown  in  the  management  of  this  difficult  department,  it 
being  entirely  under  tbe  influence  of  an  educated  eye.  Neither  am  I aware 
that  its  beauty  is  felt,  unless  by  those  whose  tastes  are  refined  by  long  con- 
templation of  the  finest  works  of  those  who  have  excelled  in  the  different 
branches  of  painting.  We  know,  as  is  the  case  in  music,  though  the  ear 
is  capable  of  acquiring  a knowledge  of  twenty  thousand  simple  sounds, 
all  differing  in  tone  and  strength,"®  yet  this  power  of  distinction  is  not 
entirely  in  the  construction  of  the  organ,  but  arises  from  long  observation. 
Sir  Charles  Bell  says : “That  this  variety  of  sensation  does  not  entirely 

=■  This  harmonious  comihnation  of  the  picture  with  its  frame  induces  many  artists  to 
finish  their  works  after  l)eing  framed,  thetehy  assisting  them  in  giving  a greater  force 
and  dece])tive  appearance  to  the  whole;  for  though  this  deceptive  aiipcarance  is  argued 
against  hy  some,  as  belonging  only  to  the  infancy  of  the  art,  and  not  api)lieable  to  the 
higher  w;dks  of  painting,  yet  the  mind  cannot  be  reached  through  the  medium  of  the 
eye  unless  this  deception  is  carried  out  to  a consideraiile  extent;  neither,  as  others  reason 
rnore  subtly,  is  it  to  be  regarded  as  a diminution  of  our  gratification.  Dioramas  and 
panoramas  "are  both  pleasing  illusions,  on  this  principle  alone.  De  Quincy  says,  “When 
the  jiainter  includes  within  a narrow  comjiass  a vast  extent  of  space,  when  on  a flat 
surface  he  bears  me  through  the  far  off  regions  of  the  infinite,  and  makes  the  air  and 
light  ap]iear  to  circulate  around  forms  devoid  of  relief,  I find  delight  in  abandoning 
myself  to  his  illusions.  But,  nevertheless,  I would  not  liave  the  frame  absent;  7 would 
wish  to  know  lhat  what  I see  is  in  fact  bat  a piece  of  canvas  on  a perfectly  plane 
surface." — Essai/  on  Imitalion  in  the  Fine  Arts,  Chap.  A7T^. 

Reid’s  Inquiry  Into  the  Human  Mind,  p.  98. 


PLAl'E  V 


Fig.  3 


PLATE  VI 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


Rembrandt 


Fig.  3 


Etched  by  J.  Burnet 


FiS'  4 Rembrandt 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


depend  upon  the  structure,  but  is  the  operation  of  the  sense  and  intellect 
conjointly,  appears  from  the  long  experience  which  is  requisite  to  give  this 
perfection.  Nature  is  bountiful  in  providing  the  means  of  simple  and 
acquired  perception,  but  the  latter  is  the  result  of  long  experience  and 
continued  effort,  though  we  have  lost  the  feeling  of  its  being  a voluntary 
effort.”  We  have  already  noticed  some  of  the  most  evident  properties 
belonging  to  the  application  of  shadow,  by  which  we  can  easily  perceive  that 
a mere  outline  of  a group  of  figures,  or  a variety  of  objects,  lies  like  a 
map  under  the  eye;  but,  bj'  the  judicious  application  of  shadow  passing 
among  the  several  forms,  they  rise  up,  and  assume  their  various  situations 
according  to  their  relative  distances  from  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  We 
can  easily  carry  our  imagination  further,  and  assign  a reason  why  some 
portions  are  to  be  subdued,  and  others  brought  into  notice;  but  the  art 
of  combining  the  whole,  in  a harmonious  mass  of  chiaro  oscuro,  can  be 

acquired  only  by  long  investigation  into  the  principles  of  those  who  have 

excelled  in  this  captivating  and  imaginative  art.  Before  entering  into  an 
examination  of  this  quality,  so  productive  of  pleasure,  viewing  its  effect 
in  painting,  it  will  be  necessary  to  examine  its  cause,  and  where  it  exists 
in  natural  imagery,  the  only  sui’e  source  on  which  we  can  build  with  cer- 
tainty. When  we  direct  our  eyes  to  any  particular  object,  we  observe  it 
distinctly  defined,  while  the  surrounding  objects  produce  a fainter  impres- 
sion on  the  retina.  We  also  perceive,  on  examination,  that  we  often  have 
been  attending  to  the  impression  made  upon  one  eye  only,  either  from  its 
more  favorable  position  or  from  a superior  goodness  in  the  organ  itself. 
Nevertheless,  a number  of  lateral  images  are  indistinctly  hinted  at  upon 
the  retina  of  the  other,  which,  by  their  softness,  give  a precision  to  the 

object  of  our  attention,  from  contrast,  and  amuse  and  assist  the  imagina- 

tion from  a variety  of  circumstances.  We  know,  also,  that  there  are  two 
rep rcsenat ions,  one  painted  in  each  eye,  and,  though  they  form  but  one  in 
the  mind,  yet  we  cannot  shut  out  entirely  those  hints  which  may  be  convej'ed 
to  the  fancy  from  the  faintest  impressions  unconsciously  attended  to.  Add 
to  which  the  eye,  from  fatigue  in  looking  at  any  object  attentively,  naturally 
turns  for  repose  to  soft  masses  of  shadow  and  indistinctness.  Without 
following  up  this  subject  too  minutely,  these  may  be  some  of  the  reasons 
why  particular  arrangements  of  chiaro  oscuro  please  the  eye  more  than 
others."®  We  also  find  that,  along  with  indistinctness,  a repetition  of  form 
and  a completeness  or  unity  of  shape  are  very  much  under  its  influence. 

This  indistinctness  also  pleases  the  eye  of  the  spectator,  in  the  same  way  in  which 
an  unfinished  sketch  gratifies  his  imagination ; for  as  every  one  has  different  notions  of 
beauty  of  form,  he  is  left  to  fill  np  the  images,  and  shajie  them  to  his  own  taste:  it  also 
pleases  the  mind,  as  it  gives  a sort  of  creative  power,  such  as  is  felt  when  looking  njion 
a discolored  wall,  or  into  the  dying  embers  of  a fire.  Burke  even  considers  it  conducive 
to  sublimity;  he  says,  “Even  in  painting,  a judicious  obscurity  in  some  things  contributes 
to  the  effect  of  the  picture,  because  the  images  in  painting  are  exactly  similar  to  those 
in  Nature;  and  in  Nature,  dark,  confused,  uncertain  images  have  a greater  power  on  the 
fancy  to  form  the  grander  ]iassions  than  those  have  which  are  more  clear  and  determi- 
nate.”— Essay  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful. 


44 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


as  may  bo  observed  by  trying  an  experiment  as  noticed  in  note  30,®°  which 
will  suggest  others  to  the  imagination.  But  whatever  way  the  student  takes 
to  get  an  insight  into  this  great  charm  of  painting,  either  in  arranging  his 
composition  so  as  to  suit  any  particular  effect  of  light  and  shade,  or  in 
trying  various  means  of  disti'ibuting  light  and  shade  over  his  design,  let 
him  carefully  watch,  both  in  Nature  and  in  art,  its  various  combinations, 
and  endeavor  to  find  out  the  latent  cause  of  its  beauty.  As  the  etchings 
of  Rembrandt  embrace  this  quality  in  the  highest  degree,  from  a mere  out- 
line to  the  most  extensive  depth  of  shadow,  they  ought  to  be  constantly 
before  him  when  he  has  it  in  his  power.  They  ought  to  be  viewed  in  every 
direction,  to  enable  the  eye  to  get  acquainted  with  the  proportions  of  light, 
dark  and  half-tint.  He  ought  also  to  engraft  the  scheme  of  chiaro  oscuro 
on  designs  of  his  own,  that  the  harmony  which  exists  in  these  wonderful 
productions  may  be  transferred,  if  possible,  into  new  inventions,  as  in 
Plate  VI. 


HARMONY  OF  COLOR. 

The  power  of  combining  sounds  whose  united  influence  shall  call  into 
existence,  through  the  medium  of  the  ear,  those  latent  seeds  by  which  the 
violent  or  tender  passions  are  excited  is  too  well  understood  to  require 
explanation.  That  there  exists  the  same  sources  of  enjoyment  in  the 
human  mind  which  are  capable  of  being  awakened  through  the  medium  of 
the  eye  is  equally  certain,  otherwise  the  painter  could  not  produce,  by  a 
combination  of  color,  those  effects  which  surprise  or  delight  the  spectator. 
Locke  describes  colors  as  only  ideas  of  the  mind  apprehended  by  the 
imagination,  and  not  qualities  that  have  any  existence  in  matter.  Newton 
says  colors  have  their  origin  in  the  different  refrangibility  of  the  ra3's  of 
light,  and  are  not  received  from  reflections  or  refractions  from  natural 
bodies.  Without,  however,  entering  too  minutely  into  the  philosophy  of 
colors,  it  will  be  necessary  to  inquire  what  are  the  colors  which  affect  the 
eye  most,  or  from  w'hat  arrangement  hannony  arises.  We  observe  that 
children  and  rude  nations®^  are  most  attracted  by  strong  colors,  from  the 

we  take  a pen  and  sketch  in  a row  of  buildings,  trees,  etc.,  running  from  one 
side  to  a point  of  siglit  in  the  center,  blotting  in  shadows  broad  and  dark  on  the  near 
objects,  and  while  the  ink  is  wet  fold  the  paper  across  the  point  of  sight,  so  as  to  take 
off  an  imj>ression  on  the  opposite  side,  the  eye  is  not  only  gratified  by  a greater  mixture 
of  shar])  and  soft  ])ortions,  but  by  a greater  unity,  and  balance  of  ])arts,  one  side  with 
another,  and  a repetition  of  the  sky  line  with  the  lines  of  the  ground;  or  if  we  draw  in 
a gronj)  of  trees  and  fold  the  paj>er  across  at  the  base  of  their  stems,  so  as  to  take  off 
a faint  impression,  as  if  reflected  in  water,  the  same  agreeable  sensation  will  be  produced. 

’’It  is  evident  that  gay  colors  of  all  kinds  are  a principal  source  of  pleasure  to 
young  children,  and  they  seem  to  strike  them  more  jrarticularly  when  mixed  together 
in  various  waj'S.  Whether  there  be  anything  in  colors  which  corresponds  to  the  harmony 
of  sound  may  be  doubted;  if  there  be,  it  must,  however,  admit  of  much  greater  latitude 
than  the  harmony  between  sounds,  since  all  mixtures  and  degrees  of  color,  unless  when 
the  quantity  of  light  overpowers  the  eye,  are  ])lea.sant:  however,  one  color  may  be  more 
so  originally  than  another.  Black  ajipears  to  be  originally  disagreeable  to  the  eyes  of 
children;  it  becomes  disagreeable  also  very  early  from  associated  influences.  In  adults, 
the  ])leasures  of  mere  colors  are  very  languid,  in  comjiarison  of  their  present  aggregates 


EDL'CATIOX  OF  THE  EYE. 


45 


excitement  wliicli  tliey  produce.  I)e  la  Hire  says:  “Tlie  different  degrees 

of  excitement  produced  by  colors  may  be  observed  by  keeping  the  eye  shut, 
after  looking  at  the  sun  or  any  luminous  object,  for  the  image  left  upon 
the  retina  will  be  first  red,  then  yellow,  then  green,  and  last  of  all  blue.” 
We  also  perceive  that  the  effect  produced  by  strong  colors  may  be  increased 
or  diminished  by  bringing  them  in  contact  with  others  of  an  opposite  hue. 
Large  portions  of  strong  blue  coming  in  contact  with  red  or  white  (for 
we  find  the  ground  color  often  a great  cause  of  opposition)  affect  the  eye 
in  a different  manner  from  what  the  same  colors  produce  when  in  smaller 
quantities  ; or  on  a ground  of  a neutral  tint,  such  as  w e see  in  the  specimens 
found  in  the  Egyptian  tombs,  contrasted  witli  the  same  colors  distributed 
over  a Persian  shawl.  In  the  latter  case  the  rays  coming  to  the  eye  from 
every  separate  color  cross  each  other,  so  as  to  ])i'oduce  an  agreeable  l)ai‘- 
mony.®"  In  the  former  case  one  color  makes  too  strong  an  impression  on 
the  eye  to  be  obliterated  easily,  impressions  remaining  of  long  or  short 
duration,  according  to  the  intensity  of  light  or  brightness  of  the  object  pro- 
ducing them.  Ileynolds  mentions  three  modes  of  harmony  existing  in  the 
arrangement  of  colors ; one  where  the  colors  are  of  a full  and  strong  body, 
such  as  w'e  find  in  the  works  of  Raff'aelle,  and  which  he  denominates  the 
Roman  manner;  another  the  Bologna  style,  which  mixes  several  colors 
together  so  as  to  produce  a general  union  in  the  whole  without  reminding  you 
of  the  original  colors  of  which  they  are  composed,  and  which  is  carried  to 
the  greatest  perfection  in  the  small  works  of  the  Dutch  school;  the  third 
is  the  Venetian,  w'here  the  brightest  colors  are  admitted,  with  the  two 
extremes  of  warm  and  cold  hues,  and  the  wliole  reconciled  and  harmonized 
by  being  dispersed  over  the  picture,  presenting  to  the  eye  that  sensation 
arising  fi’om  a bunch  of  flowers.  Each  method  seems  to  have  its  peculiar 
province  allotted  to  it,  corresj)onding  to  the  subject  or  style  of  composition 
in  the  design,  and  chiaro  oscuro,  according  as  they  depart  more  or  less 
from  common  representations  of  Nature,  or  retain  an  entireness  or  severity 
of  outline.  Hannony  arising  from  a corresponding  agreement  of  the  several 

of  jileasure  formed  by  association.  However,  the  original  pleasures  of  mere  colors 
remain  in  a small  degree  to  the  last,  and  those  transfused  upon  them  hy  association  with 
other  pleasures  (for  tlie  influence  is  reei]n-oeal  without  limits)  is  a eonsideral)le  one — so 
that  our  intellectual  pleasures  are  not  only  at  first  generated,  but  afterwards  supported 
and  resuscitated  in  ]iart  from  the  ]ileasures  affecting  the  eye,  which  holds  particularly  in 
resjiect  of  the  pleasures  afforded  hy  the  beauties  of  Nature,  and  hy  the  imitation  of  these 
which  the  arts  of  painting  and  poetry  furnish  us  with.” — Ilar/Iey  on  Man,  Sense  of  Sight. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  remarks,  that  when  the  refrangihility  of  any  ]iarticular  ray 
produce  a certain  color,  he  found  it  iinjiossihle  to  change  that  color,  if  sufliciently  large; 
he  could  subdue  its  intensity,  by  intercejiting  its  rays  hy  colored  mediums,  hut  could  not 
change  it  in  specie.  (We  find  this,  which  is  a kind  of  glazing,  was  even  practiced  hy  the 
ancients.)  He  found  a transmutation  of  colors  might  be  made  by  a mixture  of  different 
kinds  of  rays,  hut  in  such  mixtures  the  component  colors  themselves  do  not  apjiear,  hut 
by  their  mutually  allaying  each  other,  constitute  a middle  color;  and,  therefore,  if,  hy 
refraction,  the  different  rays  he  separated,  colors  will  emerge  different  from  that  of  the 
com])osition.  Thus  blue  and  yellow  jiowders  finely  mixed  apjiear  green  to  the  naked 
eye,  and  yet  the  colors  of  the  conpionent  particles  are  not  thereby  really  changed,  hut  only 
blended ; for  when  they  are  viewed  with  a microscope,  they  still  appear  blue  and  yellow. — 
Priestley's  Remarks  on  Newton's  Optics. 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


pai’ts,  we  can  easily  imagine  a suitableness  in  the  coloring  to  preserve  such 
unity.  In  the  early  stages  of  painting,  when  the  figures  possessed  a dry, 
continuous  outline,  we  find  the  colors  laid  in  strong  and  bright,  so  as  to 
give  relief  unconnected  with  the  effect  of  aerial  perspective.  As  the  art 
advanced,  we  find  colors  made  use  of  in  the  character  of  chiaro  oscuro,  and, 
when  foreshortening  and  perspective  effect  occupied  a large  share  in  the 
conduct  of  the  work,  we  perceive  that  color  became  more  subordinate,  and 
the  outline,  light  and  shade  and  color  assimilated  with  each  other  in  pro- 
ducing an  effect  upon  the  spectator,  arising  from  neither  having  a pre- 
ponderance in  claiming  his  attention.  In  entering  upon  a diffuse  examina- 
tion of  the  foregoing  remarks,  each  separate  division  would  require  a 
lengthened  essay  to  particularize  the  way  in  which  the  eye  receives  delight 
from  the  various  modifications  of  color.  A work  of  this  brief  description 
can  do  little  more  than  point  out  where  the  various  examples  are  to  be 
met  with,  and  how  they  are  modified  and  arranged  to  harmonize  with  those 
sensations  which  exist  in  the  mind,  and  cannot  be  altered  or  diverted  into 
other  channels  by  the  caprice  or  false  taste  of  any  one.  I would  fain  hope 
I have  gone  further.  I have  endeavored  to  prove  that  those  sources  of 
enjoyment  which  lie  dormant  in  the  human  mind,  and  which  through  the 
sense  of  sight  are  vivified  and  called  into  operation,  can  only,  by  the 
cultivation  of  that  sense,  be  productive  of  pleasure.®®  I have  also  endeavored 
to  prove  the  great  utility  of  the  education  of  the  eye  as  a means  of  general 
instruction,  giving  employment  to  thousands,  while  it  opens  those  avenues 
to  science  which,  even  to  the  great  power  of  language,  remain  as  “books 
sealed  and  fountains  shut  up.” 

STUDYING  FROM  NATURE. 

Objects  drawn  from  Nature  possess  a v'ery  characteristic  difference 
from  those  drawn  from  the  combinations  of  fancy,  or  from  those  images 
presented  to  the  imagination.  We  find  in  sketches  from  Nature  many 
minute  circumstances,  a truth  and  precision,  a variety  and  beauty,  that 
objects  drawn  from  memory,  or  those  images  under  the  guidance  of  the 
mind  only,  have  no  pretension  to.  The  latter  possess  the  general  appear- 
ance merelv  like  the  confused  cliaracter  of  Nature  presented  to  indistinct 
vision,  or,  if  made  out  with  detail,  the  minutia'  contain  a select  set  of  touches 
or  forms,  become  agreeable  from  habit,  which  constitutes  mannerism.  Such 
imperfections  can  be  avoided  only  by  having  accustomed  the  eye  in  the 

” Addison  remarks,  tliat  a man  of  ]iolite  imagination  is  let  into  a great  many 
pleasures  that  the  vulgar  are  not  eapahle  of  receiving.  He  can  converse  with  a picture, 
and  find  an  agreeable  eom])anion  in  a statue.  He  meets  with  a secret  refreshment  in  a 
description,  and  often  feels  a greater  satisfaction  in  the  prospect  of  fields  and  meadows 
tlian  another  does  in  the  jiossession.  It  gives  him,  indeed,  a kind  of  jiroperty  in 
everytliing  he  sees,  and  makes  the  most  rude  uncultivated  parts  of  Nature  administer  to 
his  pleasures:  so  that  he  looks  upon  the  world  as  it  were  in  another  light,  and  discovers 
in  it  a multitude  of  charms  tliat  conceal  themselves  from  the  generality  of  mankind. — 
Spectator,  No.  411. 


EDUCATION  OF  THE  EYE. 


47 


first  instance  to  a scrupulous  exactness  in  delineating  objects  from  Nature, 
as  one  or  two  parts  left  out  may  destroy  the  richness  and  variety  of  lines, 
and  an  unequal  proportion  of  the  forms  may  deprive  tlie  copy  of  the  truth 
and  beauty  of  the  original.  These  peculiarities  are  also  to  be  examined 
and  contemplated  upon,  that  this  character  may  be  engrafted  upon  works 
of  imagination.  Reynolds  says : “I  very  much  doubt  whether  a habit  of 
drawing  correctly  what  we  see  will  not  give  a proportionate  power  of 
drawing  what  we  imagine.” 

To  educate  the  eye  to  accomplish  this  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first 
instance,  to  select  such  objects  as  are  simple  in  their  forms,  that  the  eye 
may  perceive  them  distinctly,  and  make  them  gradually  give  place  to  others 
more  complicated,  to  fit  the  eye  and  the  hand  to  a variety  of  lines.  It  is 
also  of  the  first  importance  that  the  drawings  he  made  sufficiently  large, 
that  an  opportunity  may  be  given  for  filling  up  the  various  spaces  with 
the  minute  parts,  and  also  to  prevent  the  hand  acquiring  a cramped  or 
little  manner  of  drawing.  It  is  also  of  equal  importance  that  the  object 
chosen  for  representation  be  such  as  can  he  compared  with  the  original, 
to  test  the  exactness  of  the  copy.  Much  injury  and  fallacy  has  arisen 
from  not  attending  early  to  a proper  mode  of  study.  How  often,  for 
example,  do  we  perceive  in  those  who  draw  landscapes  the  incapability  of 
drawing  the  human  figure  with  any  degree  of  correctness.  This  arises 
entirely  from  careless  drawing  in  the  first  instance.  A tree  may  be  imper- 
fectly drawn,  yet  look  sufficiently  true  to  please  most  spectators  ; but  the 
human  figure  possesses  proportions,  the  want  of  which  can  be  easily  detected ; 
but,  had  we  an  opportunity  of  comparing  the  tree  with  the  original  in 
Nature,  we  should  discover  tlie  resemblance  to  he  equally  imperfect,  for  an 
eye  capable  of  drawing  correctly  can  draw  any  object  presented  to  it, 
Avhether  simple  or  complicated.  Educating  the  eye  in  the  first  instance  in 
tlie  elements  of  lineal  and  aerial  perspective  gives  it  a clearer  insight  into 
the  causes  of  the  changes  of  form  and  shadow  observable  in  all  objects,  while 
drawing  from  the  objects  themselves  in  place  of  copies  gives  it  a power 
of  perception^^  and  a knowledge  of  embodying  forms  in  composition  quite 
unattainable  by  any  other  method.  When  w'e  consider  that  the  images  of 
objects  dwell  upon  the  retina  only  while  the  eye  is  directed  to  them,  and, 
like  the  pictures  on  the  table  of  the  camera  obscura,  instantaneously  vanish 
when  we  turn  to  something  else,  we  may  perceive  the  necessity  of  keeping 
each  several  part  sufficiently  long  under  examination  before  delineating  it, 

Doctor  Jurin  observes,  that  the  eye,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  frame,  acquires 
strength  and  perfection  from  frequent  use  of  the  muscles,  as  is  noticed  in  the  eyes  of 
sportsmen,  travelers,  sailors,  etc.,  who  see  better  at  long  distances;  while  those  whose 
professions  lead  them  to  close  examination,  see  better  at  small  distances:  but  drawing 
from  Nature,  espeeially  distant  prosi)ects,  perfects  the  eye  in  both  these  extremes,  as 
we  have  to  carry  the  vision  to  examine  objects  far  off,  and  immediately  transfer  it  to 
a near  examination  on  the  paper  close  to  the  eye,  for  this  organ  is  wonderfully  provided 
w'ith  the  means  of  ehanging  the  crystalline  lens,  both  for  pushing  it  forward  from  the 
retina,  and  rendering  it  more  convex  when  viewing  near  objects;  and  also  for  drawing 
it  more  within  the  vitreous  humor  and  rendering  it  flatter  when  examining  distant  objects. 
— See  Doctor  Jurin  on  Distinct  Vision,  and  Potlerfield  on  the  Eye. 


48 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


that  the  mind  may  be  put  in  possession  of  its  form  and  color,  so  as  to 
retain  it  in  the  memory  not  only  while  copying  it,  but  with  such  an  impres- 
sion as  will  improve  and  enrich  the  imagination  with  a multiplicity  of 
imagei’y.  Those  who  advocate  the  study  of  Nature,  without  educating  the 
eye  in  the  first  instance,  are  not  aware  that  it  is  the  superfices  of  things 
only  which  present  themselves  to'  the  outward  vision,  and,  without  a monitor 
to  direct,  the  art  would  always  be  in  its  infancy.®®  A tree  drawn  by  a 
beginner  represents  a flat  image,  like  a plant  or  a piece  of  sea  weed  dried 
between  the  leaves  of  a book.  A figure  represents  but  the  section  of  one, 
for  even  if  the  foreshortened  portions  were  perceived,  he  is  incapable  of  giving 
them  the  perspective  appearance,  or  lifting  it  from  the  ground  by  means 
of  the  application  of  light  and  shade.  The  first  restorers  of  the  art  in 
Italy  advanced  but  little  beyond  the  flat  brasses  that  supplied  them  with 
the  means  of  design.  Even  in  the  hands  of  Giotto  and  Masaccio  fore- 
shortening was  but  little  attended  to,  and  then  from  a want  of  light  and 
shade  to  give  the  parts  their  relative  situations,  looked  cramped  and  feeble. 
It  was  not  till  the  master  minds  of  Leonax'do  da  Vinci  and  Michael  Angelo 
grappled  with  the  subject  that  difficulties  disappeared.  Those  portions 
of  the  figure  were  no  longer  represented  in  profile  views,  but  advanced  or 
receded  from  the  spectator,  and  whole  groups,  in  place  of  looking  like  a 
continuous  frieze,  were  turned  around  and  sunk  in  the  depths  of  the  com- 
position by  means  of  lineal  and  aerial  perspective.  Raffaelle,  by  taking 
advantage  of  the  works  of  those  who  had  preceded  him,  carried  the  art  to 
a state  of  perfection  which  the  study  of  Nature,  notwithstanding  his  constant 
application  to  her,  never  could  have  enabled  him  to  achieve.  The  contem- 
plation of  the  fine  works  of  antiquity  created  elevated  visions  of  ideal  com- 
position, while  his  constant  application  to  Nature  for  the  details  enabled 
him  to  give  a reality  and  identity  to  the  creations  of  his  imagination.  With- 
out the  eye  being  made  acquainted  with  the  beauties  of  those  who  have 
advanced  the  art  to  its  present  state,  either  progressively,  by  studying  the 
best  works,  or  by  commencing  a course  of  drawing  froixi  antique  sculpture, 
it  will  be  impossible  to  select  what  is  beautiful  in  Nature,  or  be  able  to  choose 
one  point  of  view  more  interesting  than  another.  It  will  also  be  Impossible 
to  combine  a variety  of  objects,  unless  we  have  a knowledge  of  those  prin- 
ciples upon  which  the  various  woi’ks  are  constructed  that  have  given  satis- 
faction ; for,  though,  as  is  the  case  with  music,  the  varieties  are  endless, 
vet  the  science  is  simple,  and  to  be  perceived  by  those  who  investigate  the 
arrangements  of  harmony.  He  who  attempts  to  study  from  Nature  unas- 
sisted by  education,  in  the  first  instance,  will  find  himself  often  mistaken 

36  “Cicero  remarks,  that  not  to  know  what  has  been  transacted  in  former  times,  Is 
to  continue  always  a child.  If  no  use  is  made  of  the  labors  of  past  ages,  the  world 
must  remain  always  in  the  infancy  of  knowledge.  The  discoveries  of  every  man  must 
terminate  in  his  own  advantage,  and  the  studies  of  every  age  be  employed  on  questions 
which  the  past  generation  had  discussed  and  determined.  We  may  with  as  little  reproach 
borrow  science  as  manufactures  from  our  ancestors;  and  it  is  as  rational  to  live  in  caves 
till  our  own  hands  have  erectetl  a jialace,  as  to  reject  all  knowledge  of  architecture,  which 
our  understandings  will  not  supply.” — Doctor  Johnson. 


EDUCATIOX  OF  THE  EYE. 


49 


in  liis  results  ; neither  will  he  arrive  at  so  certain  or  so  expeditious  a method 
of  delineating  objects  with  truth  and  feeling,  as  he  will  be  continually  in 
dread  of  falling  into  error.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  says : “Theory  is  the  great 

director  of  exj)eriinent,  the  only  interpreter  of  the  works  of  Nature,  which 
is  never  wrong.  It  is  our  judgment  which  is  sometimes  deceived,  because 
we  are  expecting  results  which  experiment  refuses  to  give.  We  must  consult 
experiment  and  vary  the  circumstances  till  we  have  deduced  general  rules, 
for  it  alone  can  furnish  us  with  them,  and  general  rules  direct  us  in  our 
inquiries  into  Nature  and  the  operations  of  art.  They  keep  us  from  deceiv- 
ing ourselves  and  others  by  promising  ourselves  results  which  we  can  never 
obtain.” 

This  is  the  expei’ience  which  enables  the  artist  to  select  and  combine, 
to  leave  out  or  add  to  the  various  appearances  presented  to  his  eye.  Why 
is  it,  for  example,  that  the  portrait  painter,  when  his  sitter  is  placed  before 
him,  turns  the  head,  first  to  one  side,  then  to  the  other,  and  contemplates 
it  also  under  a variety  of  effects  of  light  and  shade  It  is  to  observe  the 
best  arrangement  of  the  features,  to  select  that  view  of  the  head  which 
develops  the  greatest  character  and  the  most  beautiful  points.  To  enable 
the  eye  to  make  these  selections  it  is  necessary  to  combine  with  the  study 
of  Nature  the  study  of  the  works  of  those  eminent  men  who  have  preceded 
us.  The  works  of  Titian  will  convince  the  student  how'  much  quiet  grandeur 
is  to  be  produced  by  simplicity  and  breadth.  The  works  of  Vandyke  exem- 
plify the  art  of  arrangement  and  a beautiful  distribution  of  the  features, 
also  the  art  of  uniting  the  several  parts  by  means  of  light  and  shade,  or  dis- 
position of  the  hair,  or  subordinate  accessories.  This  power  of  planning 
out  or  adjusting  the  several  parts  to  the  best  advantage  may  be  acquired 
by  long  contemplation  of  the  various  combinations  observed  in  Nature; 
but  a reference  to  the  etchings  by  Vandyke,  and  the  prints  after  him,  will 
facilitate  the  student  in  his  inquiries.  We  know  that  Rubens  advised  Van- 
d3'ke  and  Valasquez  to  study  the  works  of  Titian  as  the  best  means  of  arriving 
at  perfection  in  portrait  painting;  and  so  uniform  has  been  this  mode  of 
acquiring  correct  knowledge  that  the  works  of  Reynolds  or  of  Lawrence 
ma}"  be  studied  as  the  best  means  of  shortening  labor,  these  artists  having 
adopted  the  principles  existing  in  the  works  of  their  great  predecessors 
so  as  to  suit  the  fashion  and  taste  of  their  own  times,  but  along  with  such 
stud^"  bringing  their  own  genius  to  the  incessant  contemplation  of  Nature; 
for,  as  Bacon  observes,  “to  spend  too  much  time  in  studies  is  sloth ; to 
use  them  too  much  for  ornament  is  affectation;  to  make  judgment  wholly 
by  their  rules  is  the  humor  of  a scholar.  They  perfect  Nature,  and  are 
perfected  by  experience,  for  natural  abilities  are  like  natural  plants  that 
need  pruning  by"  study,  and  studies  themselves  do  give  forth  directions  too 
much  at  large,  except  they  be  bounded  in  by  experience.” 

The  art  of  studying  from  Nature  may  be,  therefore,  considered  as 
implying  that  which  we  perceive  through  the  medium  of  our  own  eyes,  and 
those  things  made  apparent  through  the  spectacles  of  other  men,  for  seeing 


50 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE 


Nature  does  not  merely  mean  seeing  the  exact  length  and  breadth  of  any 
object,  but  means  the  power  of  discerning  her  beauties  and  defects,  those  por- 
tions which  are  to  be  preserved  and  the  mode  of  heightening  their  effect  upon 
the  eye  of  the  spectator,  and  the  several  parts  which  operate  detrimentally  to 
the  general  arrangement  of  the  whole,  which  are  to  be  intercepted  by  other 
objects,  or  left  out  entirely.®®  For,  as  the  accidental  combinations  of  Nature 
are  thrown  together  uncontrolled  by  the  likings  or  dislikings  of  any  one, 
the  greatest  study  is  necessary,  so  as  to  form  a complete  work  which  shall 
possess  all  the  appearance  of  chance  combined  with  the  most  skillful  adjust- 
ment ; for  example,  what  a variety  of  appearances  do  not  the  effect  of  light 
and  shade  produce  upon  the  same  scene,  viewed  at  various  times  of  the 
day,  or  seen  under  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  of  accidental  arrange- 
ments of  objects.  This  power  of  discemment  is,  therefore,  to  be  acquired 
by  the  study  of  the  works  of  those  who  have  excelled  in  the  different  depart- 
ments of  the  art,  and  afterward  perfected  in  searching  out  and  contem- 
plating the  beautiful  combinations  which  lie  scattered  in  the  endless  varieties 
of  Nature.  This  mode  of  study  alone  can  enable  one  artist  to  surpass 
another  in  the  power  of  selection,  and  the  same  scene,  bald  and  ineffective 
in  the  hands  of  one,  may  be  rendered  full  and  of  rich  effect  by  another  who 
has  watched  a more  favorable  arrangement,  and  wlio  has  followed  up  and 
completed  the  various  hints  derived  from  accidental  combinations,  as  in 
Plate  VII,  Figs.  1 and  2. 

Thus  the  study  of  Nature  is  conducive  to  perfect  the  education  of  the 
C3'e,  b^'  careful  investigation  of  her  Avorks  ourselves,  and  by  being  able  to 
comprehend  and  appreciate  the  works  of  those  who  have  most  successfully 
studied  her;  and  this  not  in  a lukewarm  or  superficial  manner,  but  with 
that  noble  enthusiasm  Avhich  stimulated  the  genius  of  iVIichael  Angelo  through 
a long  life,  and,  even  when  deprived  of  the  power  of  vision  from  old  age, 
made  him  order  his  attendants  to  convey  him  to  the  gardens  of  the  Medici, 
that  he  might  feel  and  pass  over  with  his  hands  the  glorious  remains  of 
Grecian  art  on  whose  statues  he  had  founded  his  own  education. 

Nothinp:  can  be  so  iinphilosophical  as  a supposition  that  we  can  form  any  idea  of 
beauty  or  excellence  out  of  or  beyond  Nature,  which  is  and  must  be  the  fountain-head 
from  whence  all  our  ideas  must  be  derived.  This  being  acknowledged,  it  must  follow,  of 
course,  that  all  the  rules  which  this  theory,  or  any  other  teaches,  can  be  no  more  than 

teaching  the  art  of  seeing  Nature.  The  rules  of  art  are  formed  on  the  various  works  of 

those  who  have  studied  Nature  most  successfully;  by  this  advantage,  of  observing  the 
various  manners  in  which  various  minds  have  contemplated  her  works,  the  artist  enlarges 
his  own  views,  and  is  ta\ight  to  look  for  and  see  what  otherwise  would  have  escaped  his 
observation.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  there  are  two  modes  of  imitating  Nature;  one  of 
which  refers  for  its  truth  to  the  sensations  of  the  mind,  and  the  other  to  the  eye.  Some 
schools,  such  as  the  Roman  and  Florentine,  appear  to  have  addressed  themselves  principally 
to  the  mind;  others  solely  to  the  eye,  such  as  the  Venetian,  in  the  instances  of  Paul 
Veronese  and  Tintoret;  others,  again,  have  endeavored  to  unite  both,  by  joining  the 
elegance  and  grace  of  ornament  with  the  strength  and  vigor  of  design;  such  are  the 
schools  of  Bologna  and  Parma.  All  these  schools  are  equally  to  be  considered  as 

followers  of  Nature.  He  wlio  jiroduces  a work  analogous  to  the  mind  or  imagination  of 

man  is  as  natural  a painter  as  he  whose  works  are  calculated  to  delight  the  eye;  the 
works  of  Michael  Angelo  or  Julio  Romano,  in  this  sense,  may  be  said  to  be  as  natural  as 
those  of  the  Dutch  painters. — Keiinold't’s  Notes  Upon  Fresnoy’s  Art  of  Painting. 


PLATE  \TI 


2. 


EccJiAd 


PRACTICAL  HINTS 


ON 


COMPOSITION  IN  ART 


>1 


PRACTICAL  HINTS 


ON 

COMPOSITION  IN  ART 


II.Ll^STUATED  }iY 


Examples  from  the  Great  Masters 


OF  THE 

ITALIAN,  FLEMISH,  DIM'CH  AND  ENGLISH  SCHOOLS 


BY  JOHN  BURNET,  F.  R.  S. 


“ Invention  is  one  of  the  great  marks  of  genius:  but,  if  we  consult  experience,  we  shall  find  that  it  is  by 
being  conversant  with  the  inventions  of  others  tliat  we  learn  to  invent,  as,  by  reading  the  thoughts  of 
others  we  learn  to  think."  SIR  JOSHUA  REYNOLDS. 


PHILADELPHIA 

FRANK  V.  CHAMBERS,  PUBLISHER 
1913 


1‘RINTEl)  KY  CHAMIJERS  PRESS 


PHILADELPHIA 


PREFACE 


'I'he  Plates  hereto  annexed  were  orifrinally  intended  to  illustrate  the  first 
part  of  a Practical  Essay  on  Paintin^pr,  which  I have  long’  had  in  contemplation 
to  publish ; but  have  delayed,  fi’oin  year  to  }"ear,  from  its  interruption  to  my 
professional  engagements,  from  doubts  respecting  its  utility,  and  a love  of  ease 
which,  after  the  day’s  employment,  suggests  a more  natural  recreation  than 
the  investigation  of  an  abstruse  study  ; I now  publish  the  plates  with  a few 
loose  hints  thrown  together,  in  the  hope  of  their  being  useful.  Should  they 
be  thought  of  advantage  to  the  youngei’  students  of  painting,  in  directing 
theii’  minds  to  a i-egular  mode  of  investigating  the  inti’icacies  of  the  art,  I 
shall  follow  them  with  others  illustrative,  in  the  first  instance,  of  Light  and 
Shade,  and,  ultimately,  of  the  arrangement  of  Color.  On  the  contrary,  should 
the  work  not  be  considered  a desideratum,  l)v  publishing  only  a first  part, 
I escape  a heavy  responsibility’  and  expense — a tax  to  which  I do  not  wish  that 
either  my  vanity  or  my  love  for  the  fine  arts  should  subject  me. 

JOHN  BURNET. 


March  25,  1822 


PRACTICAL  HINTS 


OX 

COMPOSITION  IN  ART 


KV 

JOHN  R UR  NET,  E.  R.  S. 


COMPOSITION. 

Composition  is  the  art  of  arranging  figures  or  objects,  so  as  to  adapt 
them  to  any  pai’ticular  subject.  In  composition  four  requisites  ai*e  neces- 
sary : that  the  story  be  well  told ; that  it  possess  a good  general  form ; that 
it  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  capable  of  receiving  a proper  effect  of  light  and 
shade,  and  that  it  be  susceptible  of  an  agreeable  disposition  in  color.  The 
form  of  a composition  is  best  suggested  by  the  subject  or  design,  as  the 
fitness  of  the  adaptation  ought  to  appear  to  emanate  from  the  circumstances 
themselves  ; hence  the  variety  of  compositions. 

The  point  of  time  being  fixed  upon,  the  action,  expression,  and  inci- 
dental circumstances  oblige  us  often  to  determine  on  a particular  arrange- 
ment, that  we  may  be  enabled  to  place  the  most  interesting  objects  in  the 
most  prominent  places.  Unless  our  attention  be  directed  to  such  arrange- 
ment in  the  first  instance,  we  shall  often  be  obliged  to  put  an  emphasis  on 
an  insignificant  object,  or  throw  into  repose  an  interesting  point  of  the 
action,  when  we  come  to  consider  their  relation  to  a good  effect  of  light 
and  shade. 

To  secure  a good  general  form  in  composition  it  is  necessary  that  it 
should  be  as  simple  as  possible.  A confused  complicated  form  may  hide 
the  art,  but  can  never  invite  the  attention.  Horace,  in  his  Art  of  Poetry, 
inculcates  the  same  doctrine,  ‘‘‘Denique  sit  quod  vis,  simjdex  duntaxat  et 
unum.”  Whether  this  is  to  be  produced  by  a breadth  of  light  and  shade, 
which  is  often  the  case  with  Rembrandt,  even  on  a most  complicated  outline. 


2 


PRACTICAL  HIXTS  OX  COMPOSITIOX. 


or  by  the  simple  arrangement  of  color,  as  we  often  find  in  Titian,  or  by  the 
construction  of  the  group  in  the  first  instance,  evident  in  many  of  Raffaele’s 
works,  must  depend  upon  the  taste  of  the  artist ; it  is  sufficient  to  direct 
the  younger  students  to  this  particular,  their  minds  being  generally  car- 
ried away  by  notions  of  variety  and  contrast. 

In  giving  a few  examples  of  compositions,  I have  confined  myself  to 
the  four  simple  and  principal  forms ; not  only  from  their  being  most  pal- 
pable, but  also  from  their  possessing  a decided  character,  wdiich  is  at  all 
times  desirable.  To  those  wdio  imagine  that  such  rules  tend  to  fetter  genius, 
I shall  merely  quote  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  whose  M'orks,  if  properly  under- 
stood, render  all  other  writings  on  the  subject  of  painting  superfluous. 
“It  must,  of  necessity,  be  that  even  works  of  genius,  like  every  other  effect, 
as  they  must  have  their  cause,  must  likewise  have  their  rules  ; it  cannot  be 
by  chance  that  excellencies  are  produced  with  any  constancy  or  any  cer- 
tainty, for  this  is  not  the  nature  of  chance ; but  the  rules,  by  which  men  of 
extraordinary  parts  and  such  as  are  called  men  of  genius  work,  are  either 
such  as  they  discover  by  their  own  peculiar  observations,  or  of  such  a nice 
texture  as  not  easily  to  admit  being  expressed  in  words ; especially  as  artists 
are  not  very  frequently  skillful  in  that  mode  of  communicating  ideas. 
I insubstantial,  however,  as  these  rules  may  seem,  and  difficult  as  it  may  be 
to  convey  them  in  writing,  they  are  still  seen  and  felt  in  the  mind  of  the 
artist ; and  he  works  from  them  with  as  much  certainty  as  if  they  were 
embodied,  as  I may  say,  upon  paper.  It  is  true  these  refined  principles 
cannot  be  always  made  palpable,  like  the  more  gross  rules  of  art ; yet  it 
does  not  follow,  but  that  the  mind  may  be  put  in  such  a train  that  it  shall 
perceive,  by  a kind  of  scientific  sense,  that  propriety  which  words,  partic- 
ularly words  of  unpracticed  writers  such  as  we  are,  can  but  very  feebly 
suggest.”  (Sixth  Discourse.) 

To  assist  in  putting  the  mind  in  such  a train  is  all  that  these  examples 
aim  at ; and  to  render  apparent  to  the  young  artist  what  he  will  find 
wrapped  up  in  theoretical  disquisition. 

The  specimens  here  given  merely  happened  to  be  in  my  possession ; 
there  are  many  others  that  will  serve  the  student,  perhaps  better,  for 
illustration,  which  he  ought  by  all  means  to  procure,  or  make  sketches  of ; 
as  it  is  only  by  rendering  himself  master  of  the  subject  that  he  can  hope 
to  avoid  the  commonplace  effects  which  swim  upon  the  surface,  and,  being 
palpable,  are  adopted  by  every  one  whose  judgment  cannot  carry  him  into 
the  intricacies  of  the  art. 

Concealing  the  art  is  one  of  its  greatest  beauties ; and  he  best  can 
accomplish  that  who  can  discover  it  under  all  its  disguises.  I ought,  how- 
ever, to  caution  the  young  artist  on  this  head,  not  to  be  too  fastidious  in 
trying  to  conceal  wfiiat  can  be  obvious  only  to  a small  number;  for,  in 
endeavoring  to  render  his  design  more  intricate,  he  may  destroy  character, 
simplicity  and  breadth;  qualities  which  affect  and  are  appreciated  by  every 


one. 


PRACTICAI.  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


3 


ANGULAR  COMPOSITION. 

Exptanation  of  Plate  I. 

Fig.  1. — In  commencing  a composition,  it  is  customary  to  mark  the 
middle  of  the  space,  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  those  points  we  consider 
of  most  importance  to  the  subject;  dividing  the  picture  for  the  regulation 
of  the  masses  of  light  and  shade,  of  ascertaining  and  fixing  the  horizontal 
line,  etc.  This  mode  of  constructing  the  composition  is  often  suggested 
from  the  perspective  effect  requiring  a length  of  line,  thereby  obliging  us 
to  place  the  point  of  sight  at  one  side  of  the  picture;  sometimes  from  the 
group  requiring  a large  space ; which  a diagonal  line  secures,  as  in  the 
“Elevation  of  the  Cross,”  by  Rubens,  or  from  the  conduct  of  light,  as  in  his 
picture  of  the  “Descent  from  the  Cross,”  etc. 

Cuyp,  in  adopting  this  mode  of  composition  in  most  of  his  pictures 
which  are  generally  “Sunset”  or  “Sunrise”),  places  the  focus  of  light  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sky,  thereby  enabling  the  distant  part  of  the  landscape  to 
melt  into  it  by  the  most  natural  means  ; m bile  the  strongest  part  of  his  sky, 
being  at  the  opposite  angle,  produces  the  greatest  expanse,  and  mixes  and 
harmonizes  with  the  dark  side  of  the  picture.  Thus  the  eye  is  carried 
round  the  composition,  until  the  two  extremes  are  brought  in  contact,  the 
most  prominent  with  the  most  retiring. 

In  compositions  constructed  on  this  principle  (particularly  where  the 
landscape  occupies  a large  portion),  many  artists  carry  the  lines  of  the 
clouds  in  a contrary  direction,  to  counteract  the  appearance  of  all  the 
lines  running  to  one  point.  Thus  using  the  darks  of  the  clouds,  etc.,  to 
antagonize,  as  it  is  termed,  may  apparently  produce  a better  equipoise,  but 
sacrifices  many  advantages ; for  we  observe  in  many  of  the  pictures  of  Cuyp, 
Rubens  and  Teniers,  where  the  figures,  landscape  and  sky  are  all  on  the 
same  side  of  the  composition,  that  a rich  and  soft  effect  is  produced ; the 
strong  light  and  dark  touches  of  the  figures  telling  with  great  force  against 
a background  of  houses,  trees,  etc.,  which  are  prevented  from  being  harsh 
and  cutting,  by  mixing  their  edges  with  the  clouds,  or  dark  blue  of  the  sky. 
Th  is  doubling  of  the  lines  (if  I may  so  express  it)  gives  a picture  that  rich 
fullness  which  we  often  perceive  in  a first  sketch,  from  its  possessing  several 
outlines.  Those  who  imagine  that  by  thus  throwing  the  whole  composition 
on  one  side  a want  of  union  will  be  produced  will  be  convinced  of  their 
error  by  perceiving  how  small  an  object  restores  the  lialance ; since,  by  its 
being  detached  and  opposed  to  the  most  distant  part,  it  receives  a tenfold 
consequence. 

Pi.ATE  1 — Figs.  3 and  — In  these  compositions  Potter  has  made  use 
of  the  sky  as  a background,  by  which  mode  the  high  lights  of  his  group  have 
more  value,  and  it  is  rendered  less  harsh  and  cutting;  which  is  the  case 
with  his  famous  picture  of  “The  Bull,”  the  figures  in  which  are  brought  up 
against  the  light  sitle  of  the  sky.  If  deception  and  strong  relief  were  all 


4 


PEACTICAL  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


he  aimed  at,  he  has  gained  them  both,  though  at  the  expense  of  some  of  the 
higher  qualities  of  the  art,  “a  melting  and  union,”  as  Reynolds  terms  it,  of 
the  figures  with  the  background.  The  art  is  now  too  far  advanced  to  allow 
us  to  be  gratified  with  violent  contrast ; and  a small  portion  of  the  group, 
coming  firm  off  the  ground,  is  found  to  be  sufficient  to  give  the  appearance 
of  natural  solidity  to  the  whole. 

Fiff.  5. — The  original  of  this  sketch,  a small  etching  by  Ostade,  ought 
to  be  in  the  possession  of  every  artist,  for  its  beautiful  arrangement  of 
light  and  shade,  and  the  skillful  way  in  which  they  are  woven  together.  As 
I ought  to  have  noticed  above,  that  the  principal  mass  of  light  in  out-of- 
door  scenes  (both  in  Nature  and  the  best  masters)  is  generally  placed  in  the 
sky,  or  upper  part  of  the  picture,  I may  here  remark,  that  in  interiors 
(especially  such  as  are  constructed  upon  this  plan)  it  is  generally  reversed, 
the  roof  and  background  being  reserved  for  a mass  of  shadow  and  repose. 
Ostade,  in  his  compositions,  displays  such  an  ingenuity  in  their  construction 
as  to  render  his  pictures  an  endless  source  of  gratification  and  study  to 
the  artist.  In  some  of  his  works  the  art  is  so  completely  hid  as  to  make 
it  difficult  to  say  whether  his  background  or  figures  were  the  first  composed. 
We  have  not  only  objects  intercepting  each  other  in  the  most  natural  and 
picturesque  manner,  but  the  figures  carried  up  against  them ; thus  coming 
in  contact  with  various  forms,  different  in  size,  distance  and  color.  This, 
when  done  with  judgment,  gives  a rich  and  inartificial  effect.  On  the  con- 
trary, in  the  pictures  of  Teniers,  we  often  find  a number  of  objects  cast 
down  in  one  corner,  evidently  for  the  mere  purpose  of  being  painted;  which, 
however,  from  their  situation,  their  picturesque  arrangement  and  the 
mechanical  skill  of  the  execution,  acquire  a force,  natural  sharpness  and 
beauty,  that  amply  compensates  for  the  ostentatious  display  of  such  excel- 
lencies. Tenler’s  backgrounds  are  also  totally  different  from  Ostade’s 
principle ; his  figures  being  generally  surrounded  with  black  spaces  of  shadow 
or  half-tint.  When  a story  is  to  be  told  that  requires  the  spectator  to 
be  directed  to  the  heads  and  hands  for  expression  and  action  this  breadth 
is  more  allowable;  but  breadth,  as  Mr.  Fuseli  justly  observes,  ought  never 
to  have  the  appearance  of  “flatness  or  insipidity.”  It  is  observable  that, 
in  an  exhibition  where  there  are  a number  of  objects  to  distract  the  atten- 
tion, those  pictures  please  us  most  on  which  the  eye  is  allowed  to  rest,  from 
their  possessing  a vacant  space;  but  those  very  pictures  uniformly  look 
blank  and  unfurnished  when  hung  up  singly  in  a room. 

Plate  I — Fig.  6. — Claude,  in  many  of  his  compositions,  displays  very 
little  address  in  bringing  up  his  strong  dark  against  the  light.  In  him,  it 
often  looks  like  unaffected  primitive  simplicity ; but  it  might  not  be  so  con- 
sidered in  an  artist  of  the  present  day.  When  Claude  introduces  a figure 
for  such  purpose,  or  in  order  to  give  a retiring  delicacy  to  his  distance, 
we  often  find  it  of  a strong  dark  blue,  which  serves  also  to  bring  down  the 
same  color  from  the  opposite  angle  of  the  sky,  thereby  producing  a union 
between  both  sides  of  the  picture. 


PLATE  I 


J'c'hr: ^wr-nft  Sc 


PLATE  II 


PRACTICAT,  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


5 


Plate  II — Fig.  1. — As  this  is  merely  a further  illustration  of  the  prin- 
ciple noticed  in  Plate  I,  I can  only  refer  to  the  remarks  contained  in  the 
explanation  of  that  plate.  I may  here,  however,  point  out  the  length  of 
line  produced  by  the  cattle,  goats,  etc.,  as  it  assists  the  perspective  effect 
in  conveying  the  eye  into  the  picture,  serving  also  as  a base  line  for  the 
landscape  to  rest  upon.  When  the  sun  is  placed  near  the  point  of  sight 
we  sometimes  see  shadows  made  use  of  for  the  same  purpose.  A straight 
line  is  often  necessary  also  for  the  sake  of  variety ; and  when  architecture 
is  not  present  we  must  get  it  how  and  where  we  can. 

Fig.  — Rubens  m this  landscape  has  carried  the  lines  of  the  clouds, 
trees  and  ground,  all  in  the  same  direction ; and,  from  his  placing  the  sun 
near  the  point  of  sight,  even  his  shadows  take  the  same  course.  When  the 
most  prominent  or  strong  dark  of  the  foreground  is  detached  from  the 
side  of  the  picture,  it  has  not  only  a less  formal  appearance,  but  acquires 
a force  from  its  being  cut  out  on  both  sides  by  light ; as  we  shall  find  when 
we  come  to  treat  of  Chiaroscuro.  The  lights  also  acquire  a force  and  bril- 
liancy from  their  being  surrounded  with  dark,  and  the  extent  of  the  distance 
and  continuity  of  the  line  are  not  altogether  interrupted. 

Fig.  3. — In  this  subject,  “Huntsman  Going  Out  in  the  Morning,”  we 
have  the  principal  group  of  a complete  form  in  itself,  yet  forming  a part 
of  a whole,  in  consequence  of  its  being  carried  round  by  the  two  dogs  in  the 
foreground,  and  connected  by  the  principal  dog  in  the  other  group  turning 
round  to  the  noise.  As  it  is  a doubt  in  the  minds  of  some  artists  how  far 
it  is  agreeable  to  the  rules  of  composition  to  admit  a figure  complete  in 
itself  as  a portion  of  a group,  I shall  only  observe  here,  that,  as  far  as  form 
is  concerned,  their  objection  cannot  apply;  and  as  to  individual  parts, 
we  see  not  only  heads  and  hands  complete  as  to  form  and  light  and  shade ; 
but  we  find  that  even  an  ejm  is  capable  of  possessing  all  the  characteristic 
beauties  of  the  art.  In  fact,  this  application  of  it  in  the  abstract,  as  well 
as  in  the  aggregate,  pervades  everything. 

An  object  must  not  only  appear  to  possess  those  properties  adapted 
by  Nature  for  its  purpose  and  protection,  but  also  those  qualities  which 
have  been  found  by  the  experience  of  the  best  masters  productive  of  beauty ; 
this  renders  it  a source  of  gratification ; and  it  is  then  said  to  be  true  to 
Nature  and  art.  For  example,  if  we  examine  an  eye  turned  from  the  light, 
we  perceive  a breadth  of  chiaroscuro ; the  white,  or  cornea,  producing  a 
mass  of  light,  the  iris  and  pupil  a mass  of  shade.  We  find  each  of  these 
focused,  and  a small  portion  of  the  strong  dark  and  strong  light  brought 
inj  contact ; and  the  light  passing  through  the  iris  gives  it  its  transparency, 
and  serves  instead  of  reflected  light  to  clear  up  the  shadow ; the  watery  fluid, 
in  the  bottom  of  the  eye  and  on  the  under  eyelid,  gives  us  that  portion  of 
minute  finish  necessary  in  all  works  of  art,  to  which  even  the  protecting 
hairs  contribute.  We  have  here  a picture  complete  in  itself ; but  if  we 
carry  our  examination  to  the  surrounding  lines  in  the  orbit  we  perceive  a 
harmonious  communication  and  extension  of  its  form,  lights  and  darks,  by 


FRACTICAT.  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


which  its  harshness  is  softened  and  diffused,  and  it  becomes  a part  of  the 
composition  of  the  whole  countenance. 

Plate  II — Fig.  — I have  given  a gradual  advancement  of  the  most 
prominent  and  dark  part  of  a composition,  until,  in  this  example,  we  have 
the  strongest  point  brought  into  the  center.  In  the  original,  “The 
Embarkation  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,”  the  two  principal  figures  are 
dressed  in  strong  red,  and  strong  black,  and  are  the  most  cutting  part  of 
the  group;  and,  from  their  being  brought  into  the  center  and  against 
the  most  retiring  part,  and  surrounded  by  light,  Cuyp  has  rendered  them 
of  the  greatest  importance,  though  occupying  only  a very  small  portion 
of  the  picture. 


ANGULAR  COMPOSITION. 

Plate  III — Fig.  1. — The  plan  of  composition  I have  here  taken  up  is 
in  the  form  of  a diamond ; wdiich  we  find  often  adopted,  either  as  a complete 
group,  or  as  forming  part  of  a more  complicated  arrangement.  In  com- 
mencing a composition,  I have  mentioned,  “that  it  is  of  importance  to  mark 
in  those  points  most  necessary  to  our  purpose.”  For  example,  when  a story 
is  to  be  told,  the  heads  and  hands,  the  seats  of  action  and  expression,  are 
often  referred  to  each  other  for  the  completion  of  form  or  extension  of 
light;  as  by  such  means  the  eye  of  the  spectator  is  led  to  the  commencement 
and  operation  of  the  incident.  After  arranging  the  principal  points,  wLat 
are  called  the  “secondary”  require  the  greatest  consideration ; whether  for 
the  repetition  of  the  lines,  extension  of  the  form  or  conduct  of  the  light  and 
shade.  Sometimes  we  are  actuated  by  our  requiring  a second  or  third  group 
for  the  better  illustration  of  the  story,  which  naturally  leads  us  in  the  direc- 
tion that  affords  us  the  greatest  space;  sometimes  by  the  principal  group 
demanding  a considerable  portion  of  the  ground  for  a mass  of  shadow, 
beyond  which  a strong  point  is  required,  as  a link  of  communication  between 
the  figures  and  the  background.  By  making  this  point  the  strongest  of  a 
secondary  group  of  objects,  either  from  its  size,  lights  or  darks,  the  eye 
is  carried  into  the  most  remote  circumstances,  which  become  a part  of  the 
whole,  from  the  principal  group,  being  made  to  depend  upon  such  point  for 
tlie  completion  of  its  form,  the  extension  of  the  light,  or  the  repetition  of 
color. 

Fig.  H. — In  designs  constructed  upon  this  plan  (especially  of  the  Dutch 
School),  we  generally  find  the  lower  part  of  the  form  strongly  pronounced, 
either  by  color,  or  by  light  upon  a dark  ground,  or  vice  versa ; this  gives 
tlie  group  a firm  foundation,  and  also  enables  the  artist  to  keep  the  other 
objects  in  their  proper  situations  as  to  distance  from  the  eye.  I wish 
particularly  to  direct  the  student‘s  attention  to  this  particular,  as  a doc- 
trine, founded  upon  the  rays  of  vision,  has  been  attempted  to  be  estab- 
lished, viz.:  tliat  objects  as  they  recede  from  the  center  of  the  picture, 
either  to  the  sides  or  bottom,  ought  to  be  deprived  of  part  of  their  force  of 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


7 


light  and  shade  and  color.  This  is  neither  Nature  nor  art.  If  the  subject 
requires  those  objects  to  be  kept  subordinate,  true  art  does  not  deprive  them 
of  their  natural  force  by  robbing  them  of  their  lights,  darks  or  colors;  it 
renders  them  less  obtrusive  by  the  ground  which  surrounds  them,  or  sub- 
stitutes other  objects  of  a less  attractive  quality. 

Plate  III — Fig.  3. — By  making  the  circumstance  from  which  the  story 
springs  a strong  point  (either  from  suitation,  force  or  color),  and  sur- 
rounding it  with  those  objects  more  immediately  connected,  and  most  illus- 
trative of  its  effects,  the  picture  explains  itself  at  a glance ; which  is  one 
of  the  strong  distinctions  of  painting  from  poetry — the  one  proceeding  in 
a circuitous  route  to  hide  the  denouement,  and  keep  hold  of  the  attention, 
the  other  proclaiming  instantaneously  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  story. 
I do  not  mean  that  the  circumstance  ought  always  to  occupy  the  center, 
any  more  than  that  the  hero  should  always  occupy  the  center ; but  as  it  is  of 
use  to  explain  the  cause  of  his  action  and  expression,  it  has,  in  my  mind,  a 
prior  claim  to  consideration. 

Plate  III — Figs.  and  6 — Plate  IV — Fig.  5. — We  have  the  strongest 
light  coming  in  contact  with  the  strong  dark  in  the  most  cutting  manner, 
in  the  knee  and  leg  of  the  falling  figure,  the  arm  of  the  man  writing  and 
in  the  head  of  the  infant  Christ.  When  this  can  be  done  without  inter- 
fering with  the  breadth  of  light,  it  is  of  the  greatest  consequence,  both  on 
account  of  its  giving  a thickness  or  rotundity  to  the  group,  and  also  because 
it  enables  us  to  keep  the  most  projecting  points  and  the  most  retiring  in 
their  proper  places  by  analogy  to  one  another.  I am  aware  that  the  man- 
agement of  light  and  shade  often  requires  a sacrifice  of  this  principle ; where 
we  can  accomplish  our  object  without  such  a sacrifice  it  has  always  the  most 
natural  appearance.  Many  accidental  combinations  and  beautiful  effects 
of  Nature  arise  not  merely  from  their  possessing  a good  general  form  and 
a pictorial  arrangement  of  light  and  shade,  but  also  from  the  most  pro- 
jecting points  being  often  assisted  by  a combination  of  a harsh  cutting  line, 
strong  dark  and  light,  or  opposition  of  local  color,  and  hence  they  strike 
tlie  artist  as  being  applicable  to  painting;  these  being  the  means  he  finds 
frequently  adopted  by  the  best  masters.  It  is  only  under  such  favorable 
circumstances  that  the  artist  can  enter  the  lists  with  Nature ; and,  having 
but  a flat  surface  to  work  upon,  he  is  warranted  in  availing  himself  of  every 
assistance  science  can  afford.  In  arranging  objects  scientifically,  to  give 
tliem  at  the  same  time  the  appearance  of  natural  accident,  is  one  of  the 
perfections  of  the  art. 

As  the  best  practical  hints  are  derived  from  accidental  combinations  in 
Nature,  whose  sudden  changes  prevent  the  possibility  of  sketching,  the  mind 
ought  to  be  trained  to  the  most  regular  and  even  mechanical  mode  of  arrang- 
ing the  ideas ; that  in  an  instant  we  may  be  able  to  determine  whether  the 
effects,  which  we  perceive,  depend  upon  a particular  form,  upon  particular 
arrangement  of  the  light  and  shade,  or  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  hot 
and  cold  colors  are  brought  in  contract.  By  thus  tracing  effects  to  their 


8 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


proper  causes  we  secure  the  principal  points  as  a sort  of  shorthand  notes 
to  guide  and  assist  the  memory.  This  practice  will  also  open  a road  of 
communication  hetween  the  eye  and  the  operations  of  the  mind,  which 
neither  a hasty  sketch  nor  the  most  learned  dissertation  can,  separately, 
produce.  At  first  it  may  seem  more  difficult  than  it  really  is ; but  a few 
trials  will  convince  the  student  of  its  practicability,  especially  as  the  effects 
that  strike  him  to  be  the  most  pictorial  are  generally  the  most  simple. 

Plate  III — Fig.  Jf.. — The  cards  lying  on  the  ground,  in  this  subject, 
indicate  the  cause  of  the  quarrel;  and  the  figure  entering  from  an  adjoining 
apartment  gives  us  a hint  of  the  noise  generally  attending  such  brawls. 
As  a moral  is  here  introduced,  I shall  make  a few  remarks  (otherwise  irrel- 
evant to  the  purpose)  in  this  place.  When  a picture  possesses  a moral,  it 
is  certainly  a great  advantage,  provided  we  are  not  disgusted  by  its  vul- 
garity, as  is  the  case  in  the  representation  of  drunkenness,  etc.,  in  some  of 
the  Dutch  School,  or  by  affected  sentiment,  as  in  many  of  the  present  works 
of  all  the  schools.  The  moral  must  also  never  injure  the  picture  in  its  higher 
requisites.  In  the  early  ages,  representations  of  vice  were  necessary  as 
strong  lessons  of  morality ; but  as  mankind  grew  more  enlightened,  they 
were  referred  to  books,  not  pictures,  for  improvement.  Besides,  an  artist 
ouglit  always  to  recollect  that  he  paints  for  the  higher,  not  for  the  lower, 
classes  of  men ; and  as  his  business  is  to  convey  pleasure,  not  pain,  a little 
intercourse  with  society  will  convince  him  that  men  in  all  ranks  have  often 
enough  to  vex  them,  or  to  produce  a variance  with  their  fellow  creatures, 
without  hanging  up  on  their  walls  representations  tending  to  Increase  either 
the  one  or  the  other  feeling.  The  absence  of  these  considerations  in  an  artist 
(of  which  we  see  daily  proofs)  dooms  his  works  to  that  neglect  which  he 
ascribes  to  the  want  of  encouragement  to  the  arts  generally.  Representa- 
tions of  tragical  events  also  (though  possessing  a fine  moral  or  sentiment) 
have  received  but  little  patronage  in  this  country ; whether  it  is  that  they 
are  not  suited  to  the  character  of  the  nation,  who,  though  not  averse  to  the 
representation  of  a tragedy  on  the  stage,  are  unwilling  to  choose  a constant 
companion  from  sucli  a class,  or  that  there  are  few  of  those  connoisseurs 
whose  feelings  arc  completely  absorbed  in  the  contemplation  of  high  art,  is 
a question  which  this  is  not  the  proper  place  to  discuss ; the  fact  is,  however, 
indisputable. 

Plate  III — Fig.  6. — As  this  composition  consists  of  a single  figure, 
I shall  notice  here  the  method  Met/.u  has  taken  to  render  it  a part  of  the 
whole,  especially  as  we  shall  have  to  refer  to  other  plates,  when  we  come 
to  treat  of  light  and  shade  and  color.  The  figures  dressed  in  black  and 
white,  coming  in  contact  and  contrast  in  the  strongest  manner ; the  black 
is  repeated  by  the  hat,  and  diffused  by  the  black  marble  in  the  floor,  the 
wliite  is  referred  to  the  white  marble  in  the  floor  and  collected  into  a mass 
hv  tlie  wliite  wall ; the  carpet,  which  is  of  red  and  warm  colors,  focused 
at  the  light  by  a stick  of  wax,  is  repeated  by  the  back  of  the  chair,  and 
carried  up  by  the  outside  of  the  window  on  the  edge  of  the  picture,  which 


PLATE  III 


PLATE  IV 


n Sc . 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


9 


is  painted  of  a pale  red ; the  forms  are  echoed  and  repeated  with  the  same 
simplicity,  and  the  picture  frame  on  the  wall,  from  being  smaller  than  the 
frame  of  the  window,  serves  at  the  same  time  to  assist  the  perspective  effect ; 
even  the  fastening  of  the  casement  is  not  without  its  use  in  the  composition. 
In  thus  obliging  a design  to  depend  on  its  ground  for  support,  consists  the 
principle  of  union  and  harmony ; but,  as  I have  at  present  only  to  draw  the 
student’s  attention  to  the  arrangement  of  form  and  that  portion  of  com- 
position that  arises  from  the  repetition  and  connection  of  lines,  I shall  notice 
one  good  plan  among  many  others,  which  is  to  mark  in  strongly  those 
points  in  the  ground  which  of  necessity  must  be  introduced  from  natural 
circumstances,  at  the  same  time  contriving  the  group  so  that  those  points 
become  of  the  greatest  consequence  to  the  composition.  This  often  gives 
a characteristic  stamp  of  Nature  to  the  whole. 

Plate  III — Fig.  7. — We  have  here  the  strong  dark  point  coming  in 
contact  with  the  light  ground  in  the  most  cutting  manner ; which  is  more 
naturally  accounted  for  by  its  being  the  most  projecting;  as  it  is  the  inside 
of  an  empty  drinking  cup,  it  perhaps  indicates  the  commencement  of  the 
story  as  well  as  any  other  means. 

Plate  IV — Fig.  1. — As  an  outline  can  give  us  little  idea  of  this 
arrangement,  I may  be  allowed  to  observe  that  the  four  points  of  light  are 
the  upper  halves  of  both  the  figures  (being  of  a pale  yellow),  the  white 
dog  and  a light  wall  above  the  fireplace  brought  in  contact  with  a black 
powder  horn. 

Plate  IV — Fig.  2. — Ostade’s  pictures  have  the  peculiarly  valuable 
property  of  looking  well  at  a distance,  thereby  attracting  the  attention  of 
the  spectator  toward  them.  When  we  come  nigh  to  examine  we  find  that 
this  is  produced  by  their  possessing  a decided  mass  of  light,  obtained  by 
means  of  a light  wall,  sky,  etc.  His  heads  and  hands  form  a number  of 
luminous  spots  in  a mass  of  half-tint,  and  are  rendered  of  more  value  by 
the  introduction  of  blue  and  dark  draperies ; this  requires  much  considera- 
tion, in  order  that  these  spots  may  take  agreeable  and  decided  forms  to 
prevent  confusion.  In  Ostade’s  works  it  is  rendered  the  more  easy,  as  he 
has  seldom  any  particular  story  to  interfere  with  the  arrangement.  His 
pictures  call  to  my  mind  a passage  in  Hervey,  which  appears  like  the  lan- 
guage of  a painter,  so  completely  consonant  is  it  to  the  principles  on  which 
he  constructs  his  work.  Speaking  of  the  stars,  Hervey  says,  “On  a care- 
less inspection  you  perceive  no  accuracy  or  uniformity  in  the  position  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  they  appear  like  an  illustrious  chaos,  a promiscuous  heap 
of  shining  globes,  neither  ranked  in  order  nor  moving  by  line ; but  wdiat 
seems  confusion  is  all  regularity ; what  carries  a show  of  negligence  is 
really  the  result  of  the  most  masterful  contrivance.” 

Fig.  3. — P.  de  Laer,  from  his  long  residence  among  the  Italian  painters, 
has  constnicted  most  of  his  pictures,  though  generally  in  the  low  w'alks  of 
art,  on  the  most  regular  and  severe  principles  of  their  grandest  composi- 
tions. As  this  regularity  is  considered  by  some  to  be  incompatible  with 


10 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


the  negligence  of  arrangement  which  they  suppose  necessary  to  the  pic- 
turesque, I shall  here  make  a few  observations  on  that  doctrine.  I consider 
it  to  be  false,  and  not  tenable,  when  referred  to  the  operations  of  Nature; 
for  we  find  her  conducting  and  exhibiting  the  most  beautiful  appearances 
and  effects  in  the  humblest  and  most  trifling  of  her  works  by  the  same  laws 
that  regulate  her  in  the  formation  of  the  most  sublime.  Abernethy  says, 
“That  work  is  beheld  with  admiration  and  delight,  as  the  result  of  deep 
counsel,  which  is  complicated  in  its  parts,  yet  simple  in  its  operations, 
where  a variety  of  effects  are  seen  to  arise  from  one  principle  operating 
uniformly.”  When  we  refer  to  the  great  masters  in  poetry  we  find  that  the 
“Idyls”  of  Theocritus  are  not  less  regular  than  the  “Iliad”  of  Homer;  or 
the  “Georgies”  and  “Eclogues”  of  Virgil  than  the  “^iieid.”  The  English 
pastorals  have  failed  in  giving  pleasure,  not  by  the  regularity  of  their  con- 
struction, but  in  consequence  of  their  not  being  founded  on  truth;  the  lan- 
guage and  scenery  not  being  that  of  Nature  in  such  situations. 

Let  me  here  caution  the  student  against  supposing  that  I mean  gross- 
ness and  vulgarity  as  proper  accompaniments  in  his  representations  of 
common  Nature ; he  must  conevy  such  scenes  to  us  with  the  appearance  of 
their  having  passed  through  a susceptible  and  amiable  mind,  anxious  to 
render  Nature  agreeable,  not  to  make  her  disgusting. 

In  the  work  of  the  best  painters  in  the  lower  walks  of  the  art,  there 
are  numberless  examples  of  this  regularity.  Even  Wouvermans,  whose  soft 
and  delicate  touch  seems  ill  suited  to  severe  regularity  of  form,  or  light 
and  shade,  has  received  an  advantage  by  its  adoption ; his  best  pictures 
being  founded  on  the  simple  construction  of  his  rival.  A regular  form  can 
alwa_ys  be  rendered  sufficiently  irregular  by  the  means  of  light  and  shade ; 
and  if  P.  de  Laer’s  pictures  possess  this  property  of  light  and  shade  too 
decidedly  for  such  a purpose,  we  must  recollect  that  from  his  painting  upon 
a dark  red  ground  (as  was  used  at  the  time  by  many  of  the  Italians)  his 
works  often  look  harsh;  the  lights,  from  being  thickly  painted,  having 
resisted  the  influence  of  the  ground,  while  his  half  tints  are  absorbed  and 
indented  in  the  shadow. 

As  the  student  will  have  occasion  to  refer  to  the  prints  after  the  dif- 
ferent designs  here  given,  I beg  leave  to  remark,  that,  in  most  of  the  Italian 
prints  which  I compared  with  the  original  pictures,  I found  the  character- 
istic points  often  not  attended  to.  The  strong  lights  wanted  their  value, 
either  from  the  shadows  being  deficient  in  their  proper  strength  and  quiet- 
ness, or  from  the  introduction  of  aericl  perspective  (a  circumstance  seldom 
influencing  the  conduct  of  the  great  masters  either  of  the  Italian  or  Vene- 
tian schools),  or  from  the  manner  in  which  the  strong  darks  and  lights  were 
brouglit  in  contact.  I believe  sufficient  has  already  been  written  on  engrav- 
ing, nor  am  I against  its  being  considered  a liberal  translation  ; the  beauty 
of  lines  is,  perhaps,  the  only  substitute  engravers  can  give  for  the  alisence 
of  colors ; but  surely  it  is  not  too  much  to  request,  that  a strong  red,  or  a 
strong  blue  (however  ornamented  by  lines),  be  referred  to  its  proper  scale. 


PLATE  V 


' '///////'.ifZ/r// 


H^.2 


CoTtisfic. 


Fi^-5 


I'KACTICAL  HINTS  OX  COMFOSITIOX. 


11 


either  as  the  extension  of  light,  or  the  production  of  shadow.  These  errors 
seem  to  have  arisen  from  contemplating  the  picture  in  the  twilight,  for  the 
more  easy  detection  of  the  light  and  shade ; a most  fallacious  method ; for, 
in  such  case,  the  most  projecting  and  the  most  retiring  colors  are  rendered 
similar. 

Plate  IV — Fig.  5. — As  in  Fig.  2,  we  may  observe  this  form  influ- 
encing the  arrangement  of  the  whole  group ; we  have  here  the  heads  com- 
posed on  the  same  principle,  and  repeating  each  other  with  a simplicity 
which  is  safe  only  in  the  hands  of  the  best  painters.  I have  mentioned 
regularity  as  a quality  to  be  found  in  the  most  sublime  subjects  in  painting; 
but  to  infer  from  that  that  regularity  constituted  sublimity  were  as  absurd 
as  to  say  irregularity  constituted  the  picturesque. 

CIRCULAR  COMPOSITION. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  the  Circular  Form  of  Composition,  which  is 
applicable  to  the  highest  walks  of  art  from  its  simplicity  and  extensive 
sweep ; and  to  the  lowest,  from  its  being  finely  adapted  for  the  purposes  of 
light  and  shade. 

Plate  V — Fig.  1. — In  this  Cartoon  we  have  a fine  specimen  of  this 
form  of  composition.  In  the  design  a strict  adherence  to  the  plan  laid 
down  has  secured  a decided  character  to  the  picture.  With  Raffaelle  this 
seems  to  have  been  invaribaly  of  the  first  importance ; his  worst  composi- 
tions have  always  a strong  feature  to  recommend  them.  In  this  design  we 
have  the  figures  gradually  declining  from  the  sides  to  the  center  of  the 
circle  on  the  foreground,  which  enables  the  spectator  to  view  the  whole  of 
the  persons  employed ; to  assist  which  arrangement  Raffaelle  has  placed  the 
Apostles  on  an  elevated  plane;  and,  by  placing  the  principal  in  the  center, 
has  enabled  them  to  acquire  that  consequence  their  diminution  would  other- 
wise have  deprived  them  of.  The  regularity  of  the  composition  is  also 
increased  by  the  division  of  the  group  into  seven  figures  on  each  side,  and 
no  one,  except  Ananias  and  Sapphira,  performs  an  action  that  is  not 
repeated.  Thus  simply  has  Raffaelle  contrived  not  only  to  tell  his  story, 
but  also  those  circumstances  which  preceded  and  followed  it.  This  regu- 
larity will  strike  the  student  as  being  particularly  suited  to  religious  sub- 
jects; but  a few  attempts  to  make  such  uniformity  appear  a natural  emana- 
tion will  compel  him  to  exclaim  with  the  poet: 

“Within  that  circle  none  durst  walk  but  he.” 

As  I shall  have  occasion  to  speak  of  the  repetition  of  form  as  being 
no  less  essential  toward  the  production  of  harmony  than  the  repetition  of 
color  I may  call  the  student’s  attention  to  it  in  this  place.  In  compositions 
embracing  many  figures  a repetition  of  form  and  action  is  often  found  to 
be  indispensable ; a single  figure,  in  such  case  being  found  too  small  to  give 
importance  to  any  action  is  referred  to  the  next  for  assistance ; as,  in  col- 
oring, one  color  is  often  made  to  depend  upon  the  adjoining  for  its  shadow 


12 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


or  enlargement.  But,  independently  of  its  acquiring  a consequence  by  such 
extension,  harmony  requires  that  a strong  action  should  be,  as  it  were, 
broken  down  and  diffused  through  the  group.  In  writing  this  is  generally 
the  case,  and  the  reader  is  prepared  for  one  sentence  by  what  has  preceded 
it.  This  simplicity  and  harmonious  communication  is  to  be  found  in  Nature, 
in  the  antique,  in  the  best  Italian  masters  and  in  many  of  the  Dutch,  par- 
ticularly Ostade.  It  is  seldom  to  be  met  with  in  the  French  school,  which 
is  fond  of  sudden  contrast,  and  insulated  action,  light  and  color. 

Plate  V — Fig.  2. — In  compositions  of  out-of-door  scenes  this  circular 
form  of  arrangement  is  often  the  only  opportunity  we  have  of  procuring 
a mass  of  shade  so  necessary  to  the  group  in  a pictoral  point  of  view.  I 
am  aware  that  some  sculptors  consider  the  arrangement  of  their  figures 
degraded  by  any  attention  to  the  picturesque  effect  of  light  and  shade, 
which  to  painters  seem  more  extraordinary,  as  sculptors  have  not  the 
means  of  local  color  to  produce  it.  With  sculpture,  however,  it  is  not  our 
province  to  interfere;  I shall  only  observe  that  such  reasoning  never  seems 
to  have  influenced  Coreggio.  The  most  picturesque  arrangements  in  form, 
and  in  light  and  shade,  are  to  be  found  in  his  grandest  compositions.  We 
have  here  six  heads  placed  in  the  most  unequal  manner,  numerically  speaking; 
the  shadow  is  increased  by  the  dark  blue  dress  of  the  Virgin,  and  the  two 
most  projecting  points  by  the  light  drapery  of  the  Magdalen  and  the  strong 
red  of  St.  Jerome;  yet  this  picture  is  not  less  sublime  than  that  of  “The 
Doctors  of  the  Church”  (Fig.  3),  where  the  six  heads  are  placed  in  the 
most  regular  manner ; four  around  the  altar  and  one  at  each  side,  for  the 
purpose  of  connecting  the  lower  and  upper  half  of  the  picture ; the  con- 
sultation of  the  doctors  and  the  vision  expressive  of  the  subject  of  their 
research.  The  prominent  points  in  this  work  are  the  same  as  in  Fig.  2,  the 
figure  with  the  book  being  in  a strong  red,  and  the  other  in  white. 

Plate  VI — Fig.  1. — In  this  subject  Rubens  displays  all  the  easy 
fluency  of  a great  master,  who  would  consider  such  a design  only  as  an 
amusement.  The  manner  in  which  the  figures  are  interwoven  with  each 
other,  the  mode  resorted  to,  to  assist  the  projecting  and  retiring  points, 
and  the  velocity  with  which  the  whole  appears  to  move,  are  all  worthy  of 
the  artist’s  attention. 

Fig.  2. — The  student  may  compare  this  admirable  design  of  West’s, 
“The  Death  of  General  Wolfe,”  with  Fig.  4,  “The  Death  of  St.  Jerome,” 
as  Dominichino  has  adopted  the  same  means  to  produce  his  mass  of  shadow 
in  the  middle  of  the  group,  and  to  bring  it  in  contact  with  the  light  on  the 
principal  figure. 

Fig.  3. — As  I shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  the  examples  of  this  great 
master  of  light  and  shade  in  their  proper  place  it  would  be  unfair  to  make 
any  observations  on  him  here,  wdicre  he  appears,  as  Milton  would  express 
it,  “short  of  his  beams.”  I may,  however,  remark  that,  from  his  making 
use  of  mean  materials  he  often  destroys  the  beauty  of  that  structure  which 
the  splendor  of  its  light  is  so  well  calculated  to  adorn. 


PLATE  VI 


PLATE  MI 


rj:  Shp^.et-J'c. 


PKACTICAI.  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


13 


Fig.  5. — As  the  merits  of  tliis  composition  liave  been  descanted  on  by 
every  critic,  being  a subject  well  suited  for  a display  of  the  powers  of 
eloquence,  I shall  merely  offer  one  or  two  practical  remarks.  Raffaelle  has 
made  the  principal  figure  of  the  lower  group  (an  interesting  young  female) 
detach  itself  from  the  ground  by  a strong  warm  light  cutting  against  the 
shadow,  and  by  a dark  blue  mantle  coming  in  contact  with  the  light ; by  her 
addressing  the  Apostles,  and  pointing  to  the  demoniac,  the  two  sides  are 
united,  and  the  figures  are  so  linked  together  that  the  e^ye  is  carried  round 
until  we  arrive  at  the  most  projecting  points,  the  hands  and  feet  of 
the  Apostle  with  the  book.  The  Disciples  express  their  inability  to  perfonn 
the  cure;  and,  by  two  of  them  pointing  to  the  mount,  refer  the  people  to 
Christ,  Avho  has  retired  thither  to  pray.  This  is  the  arrangement,  but  it 
was  not  alone  by  the  expression  or  arrangement  of  his  figures  that  Raffaelle 
holds  his  rank  in  the  art;  it  was  also  by  the  hold  and  original  conception  of 
his  subject.  He  has  here  displayed  the  vision  of  the  Transfiguration  in 
the  most  sublime  manner,  and  by  raising  his  figures  from  the  ground  (one 
of  those  movements  of  the  mind  which  are  above  restraint)  has  stamped 
them  with  the  strong  feature  of  immortal  beings.  i\Ir.  Fuseli  luminously 
describes  them  rising  like  “a  flame” ; if  not  too  metaphorical,  he  might 
have  said,  “like  a bright  flame  issuing  as  if  from  a sacrifice,  and  ascending 
unto  God.” 

Plate  VII. — It  is  not  only  necessary  that  a group  should  have  hol- 
lows for  the  reception  of  shadow,  but  also  projections  for  the  light  to  rest 
upon ; it  not  only  ought  to  possess  a good  general  form  in  the  outline  which 
defines  it,  but  the  figures  must  also  be  linked  together  in  such  a way  as  to 
lead  the  spectator  in  among  them.  They  must  appear  to  have  room  to 
stand  upon,  and  every  figure  must  keep  his  place  in  its  relative  distance 
from  the  eye;  hence  a form  composed  of  a concave  and  convex  line  has  been 
often  adopted  as  the  simplest  and  best,  and  possessing  the  greatest  variety 
of  advantages.  That  it  is  so  generally  used  will  cease  to  surprise  us,  when 
we  find  it  applicable  both  to  the  regularity  of  Raffaelle  and  the  irregularity 
of  Rembrandt. 

Plate  VIII — Fig.  1. — In  this  design,  “The  Landing  of  Charles  II,” 
West  has  placed  the  principal  figure  in  the  middle  of  the  picture.  Com- 
mencing his  composition  at  the  nighest  point,  he  carries  on  his  group  until 
it  ends  in  the  distance.  Neither  in  the  situation  of  the  hero,  nor  in  the 
form  of  the  group,  does  he  seem  solicitous  to  hide  the  science.  He  has 
brought  the  nigh  point  in  contact  with  the  shadow,  and  strengthened  it  by 
the  female  whom  the  boy  accompanies,  being  dressed  in  strong  dark;  when 
this  is  brought  sharp  off  the  ground,  as  is  the  case  also  in  Fig.  2,  it 
enables  us  to  keep  the  other  figures  in  their  places  better  than  by  dimin- 
ishing the  firmness  of  their  shadows  or  colors. 

Fig.  H. — “Cattle  Returning  Home  in  a Shower.”  In  this  composition 
the  principal  light  falls  on  the  convex  part  of  the  group,  and  the  depth  of 
the  shadow  is  assisted  by  the  local  color  of  the  objects  placed  in  it.  The 


14 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


goat  in  the  foreground  is  connected  to  the  rest  by  some  white  flowers  of 
an  elder  bush,  which  cannot  be  expressed  in  an  outline.  As  this  is  from 
a design  of  my  late  brother’s  I cannot  allow  this  opportunity  to  pass  with- 
out expressing  the  great  loss  I feel  in  not  having  his  assistance,  not  only 
in  these  notes,  but  in  everything  connected  with  the  art ; though  practicing 
painting  but  for  a short  time  of  a short  life,  his  strength  of  mind,  his  flne 
eye  for  color,  and  a taste  for  the  beauties  of  pastoral  painting,  convince 
me  the  English  School  has  lost  one  that  would  have  been  an  ornament  to 
that  department  of  the  science. 

Fig.  3. — Is  a repetition  of  the  same  form. 

Plate  IX. — This  plate  consists  of  Wilkie’s  admirable  composition  of 
“The  Blind  Fiddler,”  “The  Salutation  of  the  Virgin”  by  Rembrandt,  and 
“A  Dance”  by  Ostade.  I shall  leave  it  to  the  student’s  own  judgment  to 
investigate  the  various  forms  on  which  these  compositions  depend. 

By  making  the  principal  heads  depend  upon  one  mode  of  arrangement, 
the  general  appearance  of  the  group  on  a different  mode,  the  background 
on  a third,  and  so  on  with  the  minor  points  (provided  they  all  tend  to  the 
assistance  of  one  another),  his  composition  will  not  only  have  intricacy 
without  confusion,  but  that  variety  which  is  so  characteristic  in  Nature. 
A beautiful  combination  in  Nature  will  often  appear  to  evade  every  rule 
by  her  being  perfect  in  every  mode  of  examination.  All  her  varieties 
emanate  from  a straight  line  and  a curve.  A judicious  arrangement  of 
objects  possessing  these  various  forms  gives  the  strongest  natural  appear- 
ance to  a picture ; nor  ought  the  artist  to  leave  out  rashly  what  he  may 
conceive  to  be  void  of  beauty.  In  coloring,  harsh  tints  are  admitted  to 
produce  harmony  in  the  other  colors  ; and  the  most  picturesque  arrange- 
ments often  depend  on  the  presence  of  what  might  be  otherwise  considered 
ugly  forms. 

As  I have  made  use  of  the  terms  “beautiful  and  agreeable  arrange- 
ments,” it  is  proper  to  give  an  explanation  of  the  sense  in  which  they  arc 
applied.  By  a beautiful  arrangement  I mean  a proper  adaptation  of 
those  principles  that  arrest  a common  observer,  and  give  a pleasureable 
sensation,  which  to  a cultivated  mind  increases  (not  diminishes)  by  the 
investigation  of  the  cause  which  produces  it.  For  example,  a beautiful 
appearance  in  Nature  affects  the  savage  and  the  philosopher  from  their 
sensations  merely  as  men ; but  a painter,  whose  life  is  spent  in  a constant 
competition  with  Nature  in  producing  the  same  effects,  receives  a tenfold 
gratification  in  following  her  through  those  assemblages  which  to  the  world 
beside  are,  as  it  were,  “a  fountain  setled  and  a book  shut  up.”  Hence,  in 
art,  a beautiful  arrangement  must  be  a selection  of  those  forms,  lights 
and  colors  that  produce  a similar  result ; and  the  taste  of  an  artist  is  shown 
in  heiehteninff  their  effect  bv  the  absence  of  those  circumstances  which  are 
found  by  experience  to  produce  the  contrary.  Did  an  investigation  of  the 
means  pursued  by  the  great  masters  tend  to  abridge  an  artist’s  pleasurable 
sensations,  instead  of  being  the  most  favored,  he  would  be  rendered  the 


PLATE  Mil 


I'Uue  8. 


fT'/’  n I^iivn  (7'jc. 


PLATE  IX 


I'j.itfO. 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON  COMPOSITION. 


15 


most  miserable  of  beings ; but  the  opposite  is  the  case,  as  by  such  means  he 
is  taught  an  alphabet  that  enables  him  to  understand  the  language  of 
Nature.  It  may  be  supposed  that  in  my  search  after  so  desirable  an  object 
I have  perused  all  the  works  written  to  define  Beauty  and  Taste,  and  which 
endeavor  to  circumscribe  with  a line  that  endless  variety  and  omnipresence 
which  make  Nature  a source  of  gratification  to  all  nations  under  every 
alteration  of  the  mind;  but  as  I wish  to  avoid  all  controversy  on  the  subject, 
which  we  often  find  merely  renders  the  most  sublime  truths  more  obscure, 
I shall  only  remark  that,  as  far  as  painting  is  concerned,  the  authors  of 
many  of  these  works  have  done  an  irreparable  injury.  Artists  generally 
prefer  the  opinions  of  untutored  children  to  the  remarks  of  the  most  learned 
philosophers,  whose  advancement  in  other  sciences  really  seems  to  increase 
their  ignorance  of  this.  If  I have  explained  my  definition  of  the  terms 
sufficiently  for  the  artist’s  comprehension  I am  satisfied.  To  explain  them 
to  others  would  be  equally  impossible  as  that  those  others  should  be  able  to 
define  them  to  us.  The  mind  must  have  received  its  education  through  the 
medium  of  the  eye,  not  of  the  ear,  to  enjoy  the  faculty  of  conceiving  such 
ideas,  or  the  power  of  tracing  them  to  their  original  source  in  Nature  or 
in  art,  as  a test  of  their  truth. 

Before  I conclude  I have  to  apologize  for  the  paucity  and  brevity  of 
these  observations,  and  beg  the  reader’s  constant  reference  to  the  plates  as 
the  only  method  of  making  myself  correctly  understood.  Painting  is  a 
practical  branch  of  philosophy,  and  can  only  be  rendered  clear  by  satis- 
fying the  observations  of  the  eye,  as  well  as  the  refiectlons  of  the  mind;  this, 
perhaps,  is  one  reason  why  so  much  has  been  written  on  the  subject  with- 
out those  truths  being  made  sufficiently  obvious,  which  the  writers  wished 
to  demonstrate. 

I have  also  been  anxious  to  avoid  tautology,  as  it  will  be  necessary  to 
go  over,  in  a great  measure,  the  same  ground,  when  I come  to  treat  of 
Light  and  Shade,  and  Color;  when  many  observations  which  appear  to  be 
omitted  here  will  present  themselves,  from  belonging  more  properly  to  those 
divisions  of  the  work. 

I must  also  caution  the  young  artist  against  supposing  that  these 
modes  of  arrangement  are  given  for  his  imitation ; I merely  wish  him  to 
be  acquainted  with  the  advantages  any  particular  composition  possesses, 
that  in  adopting  any  invention  of  his  own  he  may  engraft  upon  it  those 
or  similar  advantages.  A design  that  has  nothing  but  novelty  to  recom- 
mend it  is  a conceit,  not  a composition.  The  student  in  painting  can  hope 
to  derive  advantage  from  theory  only  when  rendered  obvious  bv  ocular 
demonstration.  One  great  cause  of  the  obscurity  which  envelops  the  art 
is  the  criticism  of  those  whose  ideas  on  the  subject  are  obscure — to  free 
the  ic'orld  from  their  influence  is  perhaps  impossible ; but  the  artist  must 
free  himself. 


I 


PRACTICAL  HINTS 


LIGHT 


ON 

AND  SHADE 


PRACTICAL  HINTS 

ON 

LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


IM.t^STRATKI)  HV 


Examples  from  the  Italian,  Flemish  and  Dutch  Schools 


HV  JOHN  BURNET,  F.  K.  S. 


“The  highest  finishing  is  labor  in  vain,  unless  at  the  same  time  there  be  preserved  a breadth  of  light 
and  shadow.”  Rkynoi  h’s  Notfs  on  Dl  Frfsnov 


PHILADELPHIA 

FRANK  V.  CHAMBERS,  PUBLISHER 
1913 


PKINTEI)  HY  CHAMBERS  PRESS 
PHILADELPHIA 


PREFACE 


I am  now  induced  to  take  up  the  third  part  of  the  Practicai>  Hints  ox 
Painting,  from  the  encoura^’ement  the  first  has  met  with ; but  more  esjieciall}' 
from  tlie  approbation  of  many  of  our  best  jiainters,  who  are  undoulitedly  the 
best  judges  of  the  utility  of  the  work.  In  this  part,  treating  of  the  conduct 
of  the  light  and  shade,  I shall  follow  the  same  mode  as  before,  merely  throwing 
out  hints  as  the}’  occur,  without  any  relation  to  connection,  or  a regular  treatise. 
The  mind  is  naturally  fond  of  variety,  and  by  leading  it  through  a succession 
of  images,  provided  their  advantages  are  shovii  and  explained,  the  end  of 
instruction  is  accomplished.  There  is  no  fixed  mode  for  conveying  instruction; 
those  things  which  appear  to  the  reader  to  be  useful,  he  will  connect  in  his  own 
mind  by  a chain  of  reasoning,  shorter  than  the  shortest  which  could  be  furnished 
by  writing ; and  the  longest  dissertation  to  prove  the  existence  or  utility  of 
that  which  appears  of  no  advantage  would  be  unavailing. 

I have  endeavored  to  trace  the  effects,  as  much  as  jiossible,  to  their  first 
causes  operating  in  various  ways  on  the  minds  of  the  different  artists  who  have 
adopted  them,  whether  they  were  guided  by  rules,  or  imitative  instinct,  we 
cannot  now  determine ; nor  is  it  my  wish  to  inculcate  any  doctrine  where  the 
student  has  a bettei-  mode  of  his  own  to  serve  as  guide.  Let  him,  however, 
always  bear  in  mind,  that  in  painting,  as  in  other  things,  to  use  the  words  of 
Dr.  Johnson,  “ The  accidental  compositions  of  heterogeneous  modes  are  dis- 
solved by  the  chance  which  combined  them,  but  the  uniform  simplicity  of 
primitive  cjualities  neither  admits  increase,  nor  suffers  decay." 


JOHN  BURNET. 


PRACTICAL  HINTS 


ON 

LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


BY 

JOHN  BURNET,  E.  R.  S. 


Before  proceeding  to  investigate  light  and  sluide  in  their  various 
intricate  situations  it  may  be  pro])er  to  jiotice  a few  of  the  more  palpable 
and  self-evident  combinations,  and  for  the  bettor  comprehending  of  which 
I shall  divide  them  into  five  parts,  viz.:  light,  half-Iiglit,  middle-tint,  half- 
dark and  dark.  When  a picture  is  chiefly  composed  of  light  and  half-light 
the  darks  will  have  more  force  and  point;  but,  without  the  help  of  strong 
color  to  give  it  solidity,  it  will  be  apt  to  look  feeble;  and  when  a ])icture 
is  composed  mainly  of  dark  and  half-dark  the  lights  will  be  more  brilliant; 
but  they  will  be  apt  to  look  s])otty  for  want  of  half-light  to  spread  and 
connect  them ; and  the  piece  be  in  danger  of  becoming  black  and  heavy ; 
and  when  a ])icture  is  composed  chiefly  of  middle-tint,  the  dark  and  light 
portions  have  a more  eapial  chance  of  coming  into  notice;  but  the  general 
effect  is  in  danger  of  being  common  and  insipid. 

Taght  and  shade  arc  capable  of  producing  many  results,  but  tbe  three 
})rinci])al  are  relief,  harmony  and  breadth.  By  the  first  the  artist  is 
enabled  to  give  bis  works  the  distinctness  and  solidity  of  Nature.  The 
second  is  the  result  of  a union  and  consent  of  one  part  with  another ; and 
the  third,  a general  breadth,  is  the  necessary  attendant  on  extent  and  mag- 
nitude. A judicious  management  of  these  three  pro])crties  is  to  be  found 
in  the  best  pictures  of  the  Italian,  Venetian  and  Elcmish  Schools,  and  ought 
to  emj)loy  the  most  attentive  examination  of  the  student;  for,  by  giving 
too  mucb  relief,  he  will  j)roduce  a dry  hard  effect ; by  too  mucb  softness  and 
blending  of  the  parts,  wooliness  and  insipidity,  and  in  a desire  to  preserve 
a breadth  of  effect  he  may  ])roduce  flatness. 


2 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  OX 


Relief  is  most  necessary  in  large  works,  as  their  being  seen  from  a 
greater  distance  than  easel  pictures  prevents  their  looking  harsh  or  cutting, 
and  gives  them  that  sharpness  and  clearness  of  effect  so  necessary  to  coun- 
teract heaviness.  Not  only  the  works  of  Raphael  and  those  of  the  Italian 
school  possess  this  quality,  hut  we  find  it  in  the  greatest  perfection  in  the 
pictures  of  Paul  Veronese  arid  Tintoret ; and  even  the  larger  works  of  Titian 
and  Corregio  have  a flatness  and  a precision  which  we  look  for  in  vain  in 
the  succeeding  school  of  Caracci  and  their  disciples,  Guido  excepted. 

Harmony  or  a union  of  the  different  parts  of  a composition  depends 
upon  the  intermediate  parts  serving  as  a link  or  chain,  either  by  conveying 
a sensation  of  the  same  colors  with  those  in  immediate  contact,  or  by  neu- 
tralizing and  breaking  down  the  harsh  asperities  of  the  two  extremes,  and 
thus  producing  a connection  or  agreement. 

Ri’eadth  of  effect  is  only  to  be  produced  by  a great  extent  of  light  or 
shade  pervading  the  picture.  If  an  open  daylight  appearance  is  intended, 
such  as  we  see  in  Cuyp,  etc.,  it  will  be  best  produced  by  leaving  out  part 
of  the  middle-tint,  and  alloM’ing  a greater  spread  of  light  and  half-light; 
this  will  also  give  the  darks  the  relative  force  which  they  possess  in  Nature. 
If  a breadth  of  shadow  is  required,  such  as  we  find  in  Rembrandt,  etc.,  the 
picture  ought  to  be  made  up  of  middle-tint  and  half-dark.  In  the  one  treat- 
ment the  darks  ought  to  tell  sharp  and  cutting,  which  is  the  characteristic 
of  strong  davl  ight ; in  the  other  the  lights  ought  to  appear  powerful  and 
brilliant,  enveloped  in  masses  of  obscurity. 

The  influence  of  shadow  upon  any  composition,  when  carried  beyond 
the  necessary  deptb  for  the  relief  or  distinct  marking  of  the  several  parts, 
is  breadth,  from  its  absorbing  many  of  the  half-tints  and  rendering  the 
darks  less  cutting;  and  repose,  from  there  being  fewer  of  the  outlines 
visible ; hence  arises  a certain  grandeur  attendant  upon  space,  and  an 
agreeable  sensation,  from  the  spectator  being  allowed  to  exercise  his  own 
fancy  in  embodying  indistinct  forms.  Thus  the  gloomy  solitude  of  a wood 
is  increased  by  the  absence  of  tbe  twittering  light  through  the  trees,  the 
absence  of  tbeir  harsh  color,  and  the  distinct  form  and  crisp  marking  of 
the  leaves.  Rembrandt  has  carried  this  property  of  shadow  beyond  the 
ho])e  of  any  improvement,  and  by  this  means  has  clothed  the  most  trifling 
subject  with  a portion  of  sublimity.  If  we  allow  ourselves  to  be  influenced 
by  the  association  of  ideas  it  is  capable  of  imparting  a greater  degree  of 
horror  to  any  subject  of  terror,  as  imaginary  dangers  appear  greater  than 
real,  being  augmented  by  the  operations  of  the  mind.  iNIilton  has  made  use 
of  tliis  (juality  in  describing  tbe  situation  of  the  fallen  Angels: 

“From  those  flames 
No  light,  but  rather  darkness  visible 
Served  only  to  discover  sights  of  woe.” 

And  dhtian  in  his  picture  of  “The  iMartyrdom  of  St.  I>aurence,” 
which  otherwise  is  disagreeable  from  its  being  cold  and  black. 


IJGHT  AND  SHADE 


a 


Having  thus  defined  some  of  tlie  characteristic  features  of  sliadow,  the 
efiects  of  light  in  a great  measure  explain  tliemselves,  being  in  most  instances 
of  an  opposite  nature.  Its  cheerful  influence  operates  on  the  mind  of  the 
spectator,  either  when  viewing  the  festivities  of  a village  holiday  or  when 
he  beholds  it  diffused  over  the  general  face  of  Nature,  it  may  l)e  termed  the 
Allegro  in  Painting. 

Expeanation  of  Peate  I,  Fig.  1. 

If  light,  collected  into  a focus  by  means  of  a lens,  be  thrown  obliquely 
upon  a wall  it  will  explain  to  us  one  of  its  principal  properties,  ujion  which 
many  artists  have  founded  their  principles  of  light  and  shade.  Where  the 
bundles  of  rays  are  collected  the  light  is  increased  in  brightness,  and  when 
they  become  more  diffused  and  spread  out  it  naturally  becomes  more  feeble. 


Plate  I.  Fig.  i. 


losing  itself  in  half-tint.  In  this  example  we  have  some  of  the  most  essential 
qualities  of  light  as  applicable  to  the  purposes  of  painting.  We  have  a 
principal  light,  which,  being  pi'oduced  by  tbe  collecting  of  the  rays,  leaves 
that  portion  of  the  ground  the  darkest  which  comes  in  contact  with  it, 
thereby  assisting  its  brightness.  We  have  an  innumerable  variety  of  gra- 
dations, until  the  light  is  dissipated  and  lost.  Some  artists  maintain,  and 
justly,  that  every  light,  h owever  small,  ought  to  have  a focus,  or  one  part 
brighter  than  another;  and  as  we  find  this  to  be  a general  law  in  Nature 
it  is  surely  safe  ground  to  go  upon.  For  the  same  reason  we  ought  to  have 
one  portion  of  a dark  more  decided  than  the  rest.  If  these  two  extremes 
are  brought  in  contact  we  make  them  assist  each  other,  one  becoming 
brighter  and  the  other  darker  from  the  effect  of  contrast.  If  they  are 
placed  at  the  opposite  sides  of  the  picture  we  have  greater  breadth  and  a 
more  equal  balance.  Let  us  now  examine  how  these  properties  have  been 
made  use  of  in  the  management  of  the  light  and  shade  of  a picture.  If,  for 
example,  we  take  a head  by  Rembrandt  we  find  the  principal  light  or  focus 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  face  (which  he  often,  to  render  more  luminous, 
surrounds  with  a black  bonnet  or  hat,  and  even  this  he  keeps  of  a cold  tone, 
to  give  more  value  to  the  flesh)  ; the  light  is  then  allowed  to  fall  down  on 
the  figure,  jiroducing  thereby  a union  and  an  appearance  of  his  light  giving 


4 


PRACTICAI.  HINTS  ON 


out  rays  of  the  same  line  as  itself.  If  we  follow  him  in  the  conduct  of  some 
of  his  larger  compositions  we  find  the  same  principle  adopted,  whether 
they  consist  of  many  figures,  such  as  the  hundred  Guilder  print,  or 
of  few,  as  in  the  small  “Nativity”  in  the  National  Gallery;  thus 
rendering  the  most  complicated  compositions  subservient  to  the  simplest 
principles  of  light  and  shade.  A few  experiments  on  a ground  of  a middle- 
tint,  with  a pencil  filled  with  white,  and  another  dipped  in  black,  will  give 
the  student  an  insight  into  all  the  changes  capable  of  being  produced  upon 
this  principle. 

Ptate  I,  Fig.  2. 

If  a diagonal  line  he  drawn  through  the  picture,  and  the  extreme  dark 
and  extreme  light  be  placed  at  opposite  sides,  we  must  of  necessity  have 
the  greatest  breadth  of  effect.  If  a balance  or  union  between  the  twm  sides 
he  wished  there  is  no  other  way  but  by  borrowing  a portion  of  the  one  and 
exchanging  it  for  a portion  of  the  opposite ; and  not  only  may  this  practice 
he  made  use  of  for  the  harmony  of  the  whole,  but  the  light  and  the  shade 
will  be  thus  rendered  more  intense  by  the  force  of  opposition.  Now, 
whether  the  dark  which  is  carried  to  the  light  side  be  very  small,  or  very 
large,  and,  vice  versa,  we  have  the  groundwork  of  some  of  the  most  powerful 


Plate  I.  Fig.  2. 


and  most  natural  effects  in  painting.  If  the  light  is  placed  near  the  horizon, 
as  in  evening  skies,  for  example,  such  as  it  frequently  is  in  Cuyp,  we  see 
it  rising  upward  until  lost  in  middle-tint  in  tlie  upper  part  of  the  picture, 
ami  the  middle-tint  descending  into  shadow  by  means  of  trees,  figures,  etc., 
thus  making  a sweep  around  the  picture,  and  tlierehv  affording  the  greatest 
opportunity  for  breadth  of  elfect.  If  the  two  extreme  points  are  connected 
by  intermediate  figures,  so  as  to  form  hut  one  group,  we  have  the  greatest 
firmness,  as  the  light  part  of  the  group  will  he  relieved  by  a dark  ground, 
and  the  dark  part  of  the  group  by  a light  ground;  if  we  pursue  tlie  contrary 
practice,  and  place  tlie  dark  jiart  of  the  group  on  the  dark  ground,  and 
the  light  part  of  the  group  on  the  light  ground,  we  have  more  breadth  and 
softness  of  effect.  There  is  no  want  of  examples,  either  in  Nature  or  in 
pictures,  to  warrant  our  following  either  mode. 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


O 


Plate  I,  Fig.  3. 

Soiiietinics  we  find  tlic  prijicipal  light  in  tlie  center  of  the  picture 
gradating  to  tlie  extremities  with  a l)order  of  dark  binding  in  the  whole. 
By  this  mode  the  light  has  great  brilliancy,  especially  if  a small  portion 
of  dark  is  brought  in  contact  with  it.  This  melting  of  the  light  into  shadow 
has  been  carried  to  great  perfection  by  Corregio  and  Rembrandt,  who 
most  frequently  relieved  the  dark  side  of  their  figures  by  a still  darker 
background,  which  Reynolds  ( who  has  adopted  this  mode  in  so  many  of 
his  works)  mentions  as  giving  a rich  effect. 

If  this  method  is  pursued  in  the  management  of  the  light  on  a hand, 
or  a single  head,  it  is  equally  applicable,  as  in  a more  extensive  work.  In 
the  landscapes  of  Claude,  who  has  often  placed  tlie  sun  near  the  center  of 
his  compositions,  we  find  the  light  managed  upon  the  same  broad  principle, 
gradating  to  the  sides  of  his  canvas  by  means  of  buildings,  ships,  etc.. 


with  often  a clump  of  dark  trees  jutting  into  the  mass  of  light,  thereby 
giving  it  its  brilliant  character,  and  serving  at  the  same  time  to  convey 
the  dark  sides  into  the  picture.  If  he  reminds  us  occasionally  of  Rem- 
brandt, it  arises  from  his  great  breadth  of  effect ; if  of  Corregio,  it  is  the 
soft  union  of  his  lights  with  the  shadow.  A few  walks  in  the  evening,  in 
the  twilight  and  at  night,  in  scenery  where  Nature  has  an  opportunity  of 
showing  her  various  effects,  will  put  the  student  in  possession  of  a power 
to  unravel  all  her  mysteries.  We  do  not  know  whether  Claude,  Corregio  and 
Rembrandt  were  acquainted  with  the  works  of  one  another,  hut  we  have 
the  most  evident  proofs  that  they  were  well  acquainted  with  the  principle  by 
which  Nature  produces  her  most  striking  effects;  and  a breadth  of  light 
and  shade,  soft  and  subdued  tones  of  color,  and  every  requisite  for  form- 
ing the  mind  of  an  artist,  is  still  to  be  found  in  the  same  school  in  which 
they  studied. 


6 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


Plate  I,  Fig.  4. 

If  the  lights  are  to  predominate  in  a picture  from  the  ground  being 
low  in  tone  it  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  that  they  should  not  only  be 
varied  in  form  and  magnitude,  but  that  they  should  produce  an  agreeable 
arrangement  in  the  picture,  seeing  that  they  will  attract  greater  notice 
than  when  the  ground  is  lighter. 

I shall  here  take  the  liberty  of  introducing  a passage  from  Reynolds’ 
works,  as  nothing  can  exceed  it  in  utility  and  justness  of  observation.  In 
his  notes  upon  Fresnoy,  speaking  of  light  and  shade,  he  says:  “The  same 
rules,  which  have  been  given  in  regard  to  the  regulation  of  groups  of 
figures,  must  be  observed  in  regard  to  the  grouping  of  lights ; that  there 
shall  be  a superiority  of  one  over  the  rest,  that  they  shall  be  separated 
and  varied  in  their  shapes,  ,and  that  there  should  be  at  least  three  lights ; 
the  secondary  lights  ought,  for  the  sake  of  harmony  and  union,  to  be  of 
nearly  equal  brightness,  though  not  of  equal  magnitude  with  the  principal.” 


{ 

A 

- w 

' > - 

Plate  I.  Fig.  4. 


The  Dutch  painters  pacticularly  excelled  in  the  management  of  light 
and  shade,  and  have  shown,  in  this  department,  that  consummate  skill  which 
entirely  conceals  the  appearance  of  art. 

“Jan  Steen,  Teniers,  Ostade,  Dusart  and  many  others  of  that  school 
may  be  produced  as  instances  and  recommended  to  the  young  artist’s 
careful  study  and  attention. 

“The  means  by  which  the  painter  works,  and  on  which  the  effect  of 
his  picture  depends,  are  light  and  shade,  and  warm  and  cold  colors.  That 
there  is  an  art  in  the  management  and  disposition  of  those  means  will  be 
easily  granted,  and  it  is  equally  certain  that  this  art  is  to  be  acquired  by 
a careful  examination  of  the  works  of  those  who  have  excelled  in  it. 

“I  shall  here  set  down  tlie  result  of  the  observations  which  I have 
made  on  the  works  of  those  artists  who  appear  to  have  best  understood 
tlie  management  of  light  and  shade,  and  who  may  be  considered  as  examples 
for  imitation  in  this  branch  of  art. 

“Titian,  Paul  Veronese  and  Tintoretto  were  among  the  first  painters 
who  reeluced  to  a system  what  was  before  practiced  ivitbout  any  fixed 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


/ 

principle,  and  consequently  neglected  occasionally.  From  the  Venetian 
painters  Rubens  extracted  his  scheme  of  composition,  which  was  soon 
understood  and  adopted  by  his  countrymen,  and  extended  even  to  the  minor 
painters  of  familiar  life  in  the  Dutch  school. 

“When  I was  at  Venice  the  method  I took  to  avail  myself  of  their 
principles  was  this:  When  I observed  an  extraordinary  effect  of  light  and 
shade  in  any  picture  I took  a leaf  of  my  pocketbook  and  darkened  every 
part  of  it  in  the  same  gradation  of  light  and  shade  as  the  picture,  leaving 
the  white  paper  untouched  to  represent  light,  and  this  without  any  atten- 
tion to  the  subject  or  to  the  drawing  of  the  figures.  A few  trials  of  this 
kind  will  be  sufficient  to  give  the  method  of  their  conduct  in  the  manage- 
ment of  tlieir  lights.  After  a few  experiments  I found  the  paper  blotted 
nearly  alike;  their  general  practice  appeared  to  he,  to  allow  not  above 
a quarter  of  the  picture  for  the  light,  including  in  tliis  portion  both  the 
principal  and  secondary  liglits  ; anotlier  quarter  to  be  as  dark  as  possible, 
and  the  remaining  half  kept  in  a mezzo-tint  or  half-shadow. 

“Rubens  appears  to  have  admitted  rather  more  light  than  a quarter, 
and  Rembrandt  much  less,  scarce  an  eighth  ; by  tliis  conduct  Rembrandt’s 
light  is  extremely  brilliant,  but  it  costs  too  much ; the  rest  of  the  picture 
is  sacrificed  to  this  one  object.  That  light  will  certainly  appear  the 
brightest  which  is  surrounded  with  the  greatest  quantity  of  shade,  sup- 
posing equal  skill  in  the  artist. 

“Ry  this  means  you  may  likewise  remark  the  various  forms  and  shapes 
of  those  lights,  as  well  as  the  olijects  on  which  they  are  Hung;  whether  a 
figure  or  the  sky,  a white  napkin,  animals,  or  utensils,  often  introduced 
for  this  pui*pose  only.  If  may  be  observed,  likewise,  what  portion  is 
strongly  relieved,  and  how  much  is  united  with  its  ground;  for  it  is  neces- 
sary that  some  part  (though  a small  one  is  sufficient)  should  he  sharp  and 
cutting  against  its  ground,  whether  it  be  light  on  a dark  or  dark  on  a 
light  ground,  in  order  to  give  firmness  and  distinctness  to  the  work;  if, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  relieved  on  every  side,  it  will  appear  as  if  inlaid 
on  its  ground.  Such  a blotted  paper,  held  at  a distance  from  the  eye,  will 
strike  the  spectator  as  something  excellent  for  the  disposition  of  light  and 
shadow,  though  he  does  not  distinguish  whether  it  is  a history,  a portrait, 
a landscape,  dead  game,  or  anything  else ; for  the  same  pi’inciplcs  extend 
to  every  branch  of  the  art. 

“Whether  I have  given  an  exact  account,  or  made  a just  division  of 
the  quantity  of  light  admitted  into  the  works  of  those  painters,  is  of  no 
very  great  consequence;  let  every  person  examine  and  judge  for  himself; 
it  will  be  sufficient  if  I have  suggested  a mode  of  examining  pictures  this 
way,  and  one  means  at  least  of  acquiring  the  principles  on  which  they 
wrought.” 

This  is  so  admirable  as  to  need  no  comment,  and  ought  never  to  be 
lost  sight  of,  as  upon  the  management  of  light  and  shade  depends  the 
general  look  of  the  picture. 


,s 


PKACTICAL  HIXTS  ON 


Plate  I,  Fig.  5. 

As  a wall  or  flat  surface  recedes  from  the  light  it  necessarily  becomes 
darker,  and  as  the  outline  is  more  or  less  defined  it  has  the  property  of 
advancing  or  receding.  These  may  seem  to  be  properties  too  evident  to 
every  one  to  need  any  explanation  ; but  when  we  see  a foreground,  in  place 
of  coming  flat  up  to  the  edge  of  the  frame,  appear  to  slope  down  like  a 
declivity,  we  must  either  suppose  that  the  painter  knew  not  the  principle 


Plate  I.  Fig.  5. 


of  assisting  the  perspective  by  means  of  light  and  shade,  or  had  not  the 
faculty  of  seeing  Nature.  When  we  consider  that  Nature  spreads  out  her 
landscape  ujion  a horizontal  plane,  and  that  we  have  to  compete  with  her 
upon  an  upright  surface,  we  shall  find  we  have  not  only  to  call  in  to  our 
aid  strong  light,  coming  in  contact  with  sharp  dark,  warm  colors,  and  such 
as  have  the  property  of  advancing,  but  to  subdue  the  more  distant  part 
of  the  ground  by  soft  shadow  and  retiring  cool  tints. 

Plate  I,  Fig.  6. 

Wlien  the  composition  is  kept  dark,  forming  a mass  of  shadow  in  the 
center  of  the  canvas,  the  light  is  often  conducted  round  it  by  means  of  the 
sky,  water,  or  liglit  foreground ; and  as  the  dark  becomes  in  a manner  iso- 
lated, it  receives  great  A'igor  and  imjiortance.  As  tliis  is  the  lawerse  of  Fig. 
d,  we  find  the  same  simple  broad  principle  predominant,  and  whether  it  be 
com])osed  of  a clum})  of  trees,  or  the  dark  dress  of  a whole-length  figure, 
we  find  the  management  guided  by  the  same  rules  ; only  if  a portrait,  the 
circumstance  of  the  face  coming  liglit  ofi'  the  background  reipiires  tbe  feet 
or  base  of  the  figure  to  tell  dark  on  the  ground,  for  the  sake  of  firmness; 
and  if  any  jiart  is  more  lost  in  the  background  than  another,  it  perhaps 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


9 


ought  to  be  the  middle  portion  of  tlic  figure.  If  a clump  of  trees,  such  as 
we  often  find  in  Claude,  is  to  be  represented,  their  stems  shoot  out  from  a 
ground  of  the  same  darkness,  thereby  producing  a union  of  the  trees  with 


Plate  /.  Fig.  6. 


the  shadow  which  they  cast  on  tlie  ground.  As  a light  in  the  center  of  dark 
tints  must  thereby  acquire  an  increased  consequence,  so  a dark  in  the  middle 
of  light  tints  receives  the  same  importance. 

Plate  I,  Fig.  7. 

I have  noticed  in  another  place  the  union  of  one  part  of  the  picture 
M'ith  another  by  means  of  a repetition  of  the  light;  it  will  therefore  be 
unnecessary  to  say  anything  further  upon  such  management.  I may,  how- 


Plate  I.  Fig.  y. 


ever,  observe  that  it  is  not  only  of  service  to  repeat  the  light,  but  also  that 
it  should  be  of  the  same  color;  accordingly  we  observe  in  Cuyp,  whose 
principal  light  is  often  yellow,  that  it  is  carried  into  the  dark  part  of 


10 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  OX 


tlic  picture  by  means  of  yellow  drapery,  a cow,  sheep,  or  a few  touches  of 
golden  color,  according  as  he  wishes  such  extension  of  his  light,  large  or 
small.  If  the  principal  light  is  cold,  such  as  hlue  and  white,  we  find  it 
repeated  cither  by  a reflection  in  water  or  a figure  dressed  in  the  same  cold 
tint.  Portrait  painters  generally  make  use  of  the  light  in  the  sky  to  repeat 
the  lights  of  their  head  and  hands  hy  making  it  of  the  same  color. 

Plate  II. 

Rembrandt,  from  his  first  commencement  in  the  art,  seems  to  have 
been  always  solicitous  to  represent  the  brightness  of  light  at  the  sacrifice 
of  every  other  quality ; and  in  his  first  works  it  often  forms  a circum- 
scribed spot,  for,  as  Reynolds  justly  observes,  “that  light  must  appear  the 
brightest  which  is  surrounded  by  the  greatest  quantity  of  shade”;  but 


Plate  II.  Fig.  l.  Rcuibrandt. 


though  this  conduct  enables  tlie  artist  to  give  light  one  of  its  strong  char- 
acteristics, whether  it  be  the  sun,  a candle,  fire,  etc.,  yet  there  are  other 
[irojierties  quite  as  essential,  and  more  easy  to  contend  with,  which  are  its 
effects  on  the  different  objects  it  illuminates.  Rembrand’t  close  attention 
to  Nature  soon  led  him  to  expand  Ins  principle;  for  example,  he  perceived 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


11 


tlie  flame  of  a candle  exceeded  in  briglitness  everytliing  around  it  in  a ten- 
fold ratio,  which  conld  he  expressed  only  hy  darkening  the  whole,  and 
leaving  the  light  in  a spot,  and  therchy  extinguishing  its  influential  effect: 
hut  if  the  candle  itself  was  hid  the  appearance  of  every  object  under  its 
influence  was  not  only  more  easily  given,  hut  the  effect  of  the  whole  became 
more  deceptive  and  natural.  His  extending  of  the  light  through  the  pic- 
ture gradually  became  more  enlarged,  and  even  his  deepest  shadows  are 
illuminated  hy  streaks  of  red  or  rich  brown  running  into  them,  which  ( from 
his  principal  light  being  of  a warm  tone)  and  keep  up  a connection  without 
destroying  the  breadth  of  light  and  shade. 

In  Fig.  1 of  this  Plate,  “Christ  Restoring  the  Daughter  of  Jairus,” 
we  have  a principle  upon  which  many  of  his  pictures  sire  constructed,  viz. : 
a ray  of  light  falling  into  an  apartment,  and  received  upon  a light  object 
which,  as  in  Nature,  reflects  hack  the  rays,  and  illuminates  the  surrounding 
objects,  giving  thus  his  principal  light  the  properties  of  light  itself.  The 
shadows  of  all  olijects  receiving  such  direct  rays  we  sometimes  see  strongly 


Plate  II.  Fig.  2.  Rembrandt. 


defined,  as  is  the  case  in  Nature,  and  indeed  we  often  find  Rembrandt  plac- 
ing objects  for  the  express  purpose  of  producing  such  shadows,  which  gives 
the  appearance  of  truth  to  the  whole  effect;  at  other  times  we  find  the 
shadows  swallowed  up  in  the  splendor  of  the  light,  as  if  afraid  of  dis- 
turbing its  breadth.  Sometimes  we  find  his  strong  light,  his  strong  dark 
and  his  hot  and  cold  colors  all  focused  at  one  point ; and  at  other  times 
his  darks  employed  to  clear  up  the  middle-tint,  and  his  strongest  colors 
made  the  means  of  uniting  his  light  with  the  shade.  In  short,  whatever  was 


12 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


his  practice,  he  seems  always  to  have  had  some  end  to  accomplish,  and 
when  we  find  him  departing  from  what  would  he  the  effect  in  Nature  under 
such  circumstances  we  may  rest  assured  that  such  departure  did  not  arise 
from  ignorance.  We  often  see  the  attempts  of  de  Hooge  and  others  of 
representing  light  confined  to  its  effect  in  the  sky  or  on  the  objects  out  of 
doors,  while  it  is  but  sparingly  admitted  on  the  figures  seen  within  the  apart- 
ment ; on  the  contrary,  Rembrandt’s  figures  are  lighted  up  with  a splendor 
which  extinguishes  every  other  subordinate  light,  and  which  we  often  cannot 
account  for  upon  the  common  principles  of  Nature. 

The  subject  below,  in  Plate  II,  is  from  a picture  in  the  Louvre,  and 
shows  how  small  a portion  of  light  sometimes  engaged  Rembrandt’s  solic- 
itude. He  has  employed  the  edge  of  the  frame  work,  the  dark  under  the 
cradle,  and  the  dark  dress  of  the  figure  to  give  it  its  value.  The  curtain 
is  a dull  red,  and  is  carried  into  the  picture  by  the  dress  of  the  child  being 
of  the  same  color. 


IT  .ATE  III,  Figs.  1 and  2. 

Figs.  1 and  2 represent  the  “Taking  Down  From  the  Cross”  and  the 
“Presentation  in  the  Temple.”  Daulby,  in  his  catalog,  mentions  two 
states  of  the  original  etchings  more  worked  upon ; but  I find,  on  examina- 
tion, they  are  merely  tlie  plates  left  without  being  much  wiped,  thereby 


Plate  111.  Fig.  i.  Rembrandt.  Plate  III.  Fig.  2.  Rembrandt. 

holding  tlie  crosier,  and  a liglit  at  the  torch  in  the  “Taking  Down  From 
the  Cross,”  the  copper  being  made  clean  at  those  places.  In  many  of  the 
varieties  of  Rembrandt’s  etchings  he  has  got  credit  for  effects  supposed 
to  he  produced  by  much  labor,  whicli  were  the  result  of  tlie  printing  alone. 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


1.‘3 


casting  a stain  over  the  whole,  except  a high  light  on  the  cap  of  the  figure 
In  the  “Descent  From  the  Cross”  he  has  kept  the  principal  light  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  picture  in  contact  with  the  strong  dark;  in  the  other  it 
is  kept  below,  and  is  carried  upwards  by  a chain  of  communication  to  the 
head  of  the  crosier.  Where  the  light  is  at  one  side,  or  low  down  in  the 
picture,  such  as  in  the  “Wise  Men’s  Offering,”  in  the  king’s  collection, 
there  is  greater  space  for  a breadth  of  shadow  than  when  the  light  is  kept 
in  the  center,  as  was  the  principal  of  most  of  his  first  works.  In  some  of 
his  designs  he  seems  to  have  allowed  the  entire  half  of  his  canvas  for 
repose,  and  to  have  confined  his  composition,  with  all  its  lights,  and  darks, 
and  colors,  to  the  other  half.  A ery  little  often  serves  to  connect  the  two. 
The  dark  manner  of  Rembrandt  has  advantages  over  every  otlier,  if  kept 
within  due  bounds,  as  it  enables  the  painter  to  give  a rich  tone  to  his  colors 
without  their  appearing  heavy,  which  more  feeble  backgrounds  would  not 
admit  of,  unless  the  colors  are  to  stand  as  darks  instead  of  lights ; accord- 
ingly we  find  Titian,  Tintoretto,  Giorgione,  Rembrandt  and  our  own 
Reynolds  all  swayed  by  the  same  opinion. 

Plate  III,  Fig.  3. 

\\dien  the  light  part  of  the  composition  is  placed  upon  the  dark  side 
of  the  background,  and  the  dark  part  upon  the  light  side,  greater  firmness 
and  solidity  are  produced,  and  a more  ccjual  balance  is  kept  up.  The  con- 


Plate  III.  Fig.  s.  J^andyke. 

trary  method  has  more  breadth  and  softness  of  effect,  but  unless  the  liglit 
part  is  of  a different  hue  from  the  light  ground  upon  which  it  may  be 
})laced,  and  the  dark  part  is  of  a warmer  or  colder  tone  than  the  shadow 


14 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


which  surrounds  it,  there  is  a danger  of  their  losing  their  substance  and 
becoming  flat.  Vandyck,  in  this  composition,  has  made  the  colors  of  his 
figures  assist  Ids  arrangement  of  light  and  shade ; the  white  dress  of  the 
cliild  and  the  yellow  dress  of  the  queen  make  the  principal  light ; the  white 
is  repeated  by  the  cap,  ruff,  etc.,  of  the  other  figures  ; the  yellow  is  carried 
across  by  tlie  embroidery  upon  the  king’s  dress,  and  spread  out  upon  the 
underpart  of  the  sky ; the  darks  are  made  up  of  the  dark  dress  of  the  king 
and  tlie  child’s  dress,  which  is  a dull  green ; the  latter  tint  is  carried  across 
the  picture  by  part  of  the  curtin  turned  up,  of  the  same  color;  the  curtain 
itself  is  a dull  yellow  and  brown,  serving  as  a ground  to  the  queen’s  dress  ; 
tlie  red  cloth  of  the  table  is  repeated  by  tbe  two  chairs  ; the  floor  being 
a dark  neutral  tint  gives  a firmness  to  the  bottom  of  both  the  figures.  If 
the  student,  in  examining  the  light  and  shade  of  a picture,  remarks  what 
colors  are  resorted  to  for  such  purpose,  in  a few  trials  he  will  find  that 
which  at  first  appears  complicated  and  difficult  to  unravel  will  become  easy 
and  beneficial,  serving  to  strengtlien  Ids  powers  of  reflection  in  the  highest 
degree. 


Plate  III,  Fio.  4. 

Tlie  dark  forming  the  greatest  mass  of  shadow  of  the  picture  is  often, 
before  being  brought  in  contact  with  the  extreme  light,  increased  and 
collected  to  a point  by  some  object  whose  local  color  conduces  to  such  pur- 


riate  in.  Fig.  4.  l\Ict::u. 


pose,  as  in  the  example  here  given;  wliere  the  black  dress  of  tlie  female  is 
brought,  at  its  darkest  portion,  in  contact  with  the  liglitest  portion  of  the 
white  dress.  Tins  serves  to  give  air  to  the  deepest  shades  of  the  back- 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


15 


ground  and  greater  firmness  to  tlie  object  so  relieved.  The  collecting  to 
one  head  of  all  the  light,  and  all  the  dark,  of  a piece,  gives  the  artist  the 
greatest  force  of  the  palette.  To  enable  the  other  side  of  the  picture  to 
keep  up  with  so  much  vigor,  Metzu  has  thrown  his  strong  color  into  the 
scale,  and  brought  his  red  and  blue  in  contact,  by  a glove  lying  upon  the 
chair,  at  the  point  nearest  the  eye.  The  warm  color  is  taken  to  the  other 
side  by  a dog,  etc.,  and  the  white  of  the  female  repeated  by  a handkerchief 
the  man  holds  in  his  hand,  his  neckcloth,  etc. 


Plate  IV,  Fig.  1. 


In  a single  head  we  often  have  hut  one  light ; it  is  therefore  necessary 
to  get  it  to  harmonize  with  the  shadow,  either  in  the  background  or  upon 


Plate  IV.  Fig.  i.  Rembrandt. 

the  dress.  Rembrandt,  accordingly,  freipicntly  painted  the  light  of  the 
dress  of  the  same  color  as  the  shadow  side  of  the  face,  thereby  keeping  up 


16 


PKACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


a union  and  simplicity.  In  Fig.  2 we  have  the  hands  making  a second 
light;  and  in  Fig.  3 we  have  three  spots  of  light,  the  shirt  and  ruffles  of 
both  hands ; this  is  the  Titian  Reynolds  thus  mentions  in  the  description 
of  the  Dusseldorf  gallery,  and  which  is  now  in  Munich : “A  portrait  of  a 
gentleman,  by  Titian,  a kitcat,  one  hand  a-kimbo,  the  hand  itself  not  seen, 
only  a bit  of  the  ruffle ; the  other,  the  left,  rests  on  what  appears  to  be  his 
sword;  he  is  looking  off.  This  portrait  has  a very  pleasing  countenance, 
but  is  not  painted  with  much  facilit}^,  nor  is  it  at  all  mannered ; the  shadows 
are  of  no  color ; tlie  drapery  being  black,  and  the  ground  being  very  near 
as  dark  as  it  prevents  the  arm  a-kimbo  from  having  a bad  effect.  It  is 
no  small  part  of  our  art  to  know  what  to  bring  forward  in  the  light  and 
what  to  throw  into  shade.” 

The  linen  in  this  picture,  and  most  others  of  Titian,  is  light  and 
cutting,  the  flesh  forming  the  half-light.  Reynolds,  talking  of  the  “Descent 
From  the  Cross,”  by  Rubens,  says  : “He  well  knew  wliat  effect  white  linen, 
opposed  to  flesh,  must  have,  with  his  powers  of  coloring;  and  the  truth  is 
that  none  but  great  colorists  can  venture  to  paint  pure  white  linen  near 
flesh ; but  such  know  tlie  advantage  of  it.”  In  Remlirandt  we  generally  find 
the  same  treatment,  altiiough  I have  often  observed  tlie  linen  kept  cool 
when  near  the  face.  To  give  the  flesh  a luminous  character  he  often  intro- 
duces cool  tints  coming  near  it,  and  when  he  can  find  nothing  else,  uses  the 
shadows  of  linen  for  sucli  purpose.  In  Vandyck’s  early  Italian  manner  we 
find  the  linen  much  brighter  than  in  his  later  works,  where  it  became  more 
of  a leaden  cast. 

Pt.ate  IV,  Figs  4<  and  5. 

We  sometimes  find  the  liglit  of  the  sky  introduced  for  the  purpose  of 
repeating  the  lights  of  the  heads  and  hands,  as  in  Fig.  4 ; sometimes  to 
spread  and  enlarge  the  lights  of  the  head,  and  give  it  more  consequence,  as 
in  Fig.  5.  To  assist  the  hand  in  keeping  its  situation  in  this  picture  he  has 
defined  it  by  the  hat  and  sliadow  on  the  chair.  As  it  is  of  the  utmost  con- 
sequence that  every  object  should  keep  its  relative  distance  with  regard 
to  the  eye  of  the  spectator  it  is  a good  method  to  define  those  parts  we 
wish  to  advance  by  a dark  shadow  coming  in  contact  with  them,  and  to 
surround  the  retiring  portions  with  a ground  of  a less  opposing  character; 
as  we  know  lines  strongly  and  sharpl^^  defined  will  approach,  and  those  of 
a softer  nature  will  retire.  Such  blots  are  afterwards  to  be  accounted  for 
by  the  contrivance  of  the  artist;  in  this  consists  tlie  application  of  the 
background  of  the  figures,  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  essential  portions 
of  the  art. 

As  liglit  and  shade  determine  the  concavities  or  convexities  of  all 
objects,  without  them  the  most  intelligent  outline  would  be  but  as  a map 
or  fiat  surface.  If,  for  example,  we  take  a cup  and  examine  the  influence 
of  light  .and  shade  upon  it  we  find  in  Nature  those  principles  which  artists 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


17 


have  applied  to  many  purposes  in  painting.  We  perceive  the  near  edge 
strongly  defined  hy  the  light  side  coming  in  contact  with  the  shadow, 
which  becomes  darker  as  it  descends  into  the  cup ; we  have  the  dark  side 
brought  firmly  off  the  light,  thus  giving  it  the  simplest  and  most  effective 
means  of  a true  representation  of  its  character.  This  may  appear  too 
evident  to  notice  in  a work  of  this  Nature,  which  iloes- not  profess  to  give 
the  mere  rudiments  of  the  art ; hut  I am  convinced  that  the  most  intricate 
principles  of  painting  emanate  from  very  few  sources,  and  that  these 


Plate  IV.  Fig.  4. 


Vandyke. 


Plate  IV.  Fig.  5. 


Vandyke. 


sources  are  of  a very  simple  Nature.  Every  thing  within  our  view  is  filled 
with  examples,  and  the  mind  of  the  student  requires  only  to  he  directed  to 
an  examination  and  investigation  of  the  subject  before  commencing  any 
work  or  while  in  the  progress.  He  must  not  only  know  what  is  his  inten- 
tion, hut  must  he  in  posssession  of  the  best  method  of  expressing  such 
intention. 


18 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


Plate  V,  Fig.  1. 

When  a sliadow  is  carried  throiigli  the  middle  of  tlie  picture  we  have 
not  only  an  opportunity  of  giving  a breadth  of  effect,  hut  the  receding 


Plate  V.  Fig.  i.  P.  Nolpe. 


portion  of  the  sky  and  perspective  of  the  ground  are  assisted  by  their 
sharpness  being  swallowed  up  in  repose;  see  this  principle  noticed  at  Fig. 
1,  Iff  ate  V. 


Plate  \ , Figs.  2 and  8. 

W1  len  the  principal  light  is  kept  at  one  side  we  have  an  opportunity 
of  introducing  a larger  portion  of  shadow  than  when  the  light  is  in  the 
center,  which  is  often  of  the  first  consequence,  especially  if  repose  is 
required  in  the  work. 

W1  len,  as  in  Fig.  2,  a multitude  of  small  objects  are  introduced  into 
a picture,  or  when  the  general  arrangement  consists  of  many  figures,  it  is 
impossible  to  get  a breadth  of  light  and  shade,  unless  many  of  them  are 
united  together  of  the  same  strength,  so  as  to  form  a mass  of  light,  or  of 
dark  ; hut  which  to  do  with  skill  is  one  of  the  greatest  difficulties ; for  unless 
the  science  is  in  some  measure  concealed  it  is  no  longer  science.  In  the  con- 
fusion of  a battle,  for  example,  it  is  unlikely  that  two  or  thrcT'  white  horses 
should  he  collected,  so  ;is  to  form  a mass  of  light;  and  yet  we  see  in  Sal- 
vator Rosa  and  Wouvermans  this  method  adopted  ; or  in  a representation 
of  dead  game  it  is  equally  improbable  that  we  should  always  find  a swan 


I>IGHT  AND  SHADE 


19 


for  the  same  purpose,  as  in  Weeninx.  To  obviate  such  apparent  artifice  of 
tlie  painter  we  find  P.  Veronese,  Tintoretto  and  others  making  use  of  the 
sky  or  light  buildings  for  a principal  mass  in  their  large  works,  consisting 
of  many  figures.  In  the  small  works  of  the  Dutch  school  we  find  the  light 
upon  a wall,  or  on  the  ground,  or  in  a window,  in  indoor  subjects,  and 
the  sky,  etc.,  in  open  daylight,  made  use  of  for  this  purpose. 

Gerard  Douw,  notwithstanding  his  extreme  finish,  contrived  to  pre- 
serve that  breadth  of  light  and  shade  which  his  instruction  in  the  school 
of  Rembrandt  had  empowered  him  to  do ; and  in  small  works  this  breadth 
of  effect  is  the  more  difficult  to  retain,  seeing  that  there  is  so  little  space 
for  the  middle-tints,  darks,  lights  and  reflected  lights  to  be  observed  in 
Nature,  and  withal,  for  a certain  bluntness  in  the  outline,  to  prevent  the 
several  objects  from  looking  like  small  models.  Reynolds,  in  his  notes  to 


Plate  r.  Fig.  2.  G.  Dow 


Fresnoy,  to  illustrate  this  (piality,  says:  “We  may  have  recourse  to  Titian’s 
bunch  of  grapes,  which  we  Mill  suppose  placed  so  as  to  receive  a broad 
light  and  shadoM";  here,  though  each  individual  grape  on  the  light  side  of 
the  bunch  has  its  light,  and  shadoM’,  and  reflection,  yet  altogether  they  make 
but  one  broad  mass  of  light;  the  slightest  sketch,  therefore,  M'here  this 
breadth  is  preserved.  Mill  have  a better  effect.  Mill  have  more  the  appear- 
ance of  coming  from  a master  hand — that  is,  in  other  Mords,  muII  have  more 
the  characteristics  and  generale  of  nature  than  the  most  laborious  finishing 
M'here  this  breadth  is  lost  or  neglected.”  One  method  among  many  M'hich 
M’e  sometimes  find  Gerard  Doinv  adopting,  so  as  to  convey  an  appearance 
of  high  finishing,  and  yet  preserve  the  breadth  of  Nature,  is  to  give  the 
texture  or  surface  of  an  object  M’ithout  altering  the  tints.  For  example, 
in  painting  a piece  of  carpet  or  tapestry  he  seems  to  have  laid  in  his  broad 
lights  and  shadoM's,  and,  M'hile  Met,  applied  a piece  of  fine  cloth,  so  as  to 
leave  an  impression  of  the  threads  over  the  M’hole,  then  in  the  high  lights 
to  have  touched  each  thread  M'ith  light,  and  in  the  shadow  M’ith  dark  touch- 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


ing,  which,  did  the  lines  accord  with  the  undulation  of  the  folds,  would  have 
given  a true  appearance  of  the  breadth  and  detail  of  Nature. 

The  art  of  giving  a finished  look  to  a picture  is  one  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult departments  of  painting,  for  under  it  is  implied  the  exact  strengthening 
of  the  different  shades  and  colors,  which  defines  their  relative  situations  in 
the  picture,  the  introduction  of  and  detailing  the  minute  parts,  without 
disturbing  the  great  breadth  of  the  whole,  and  the  giving  to  different  sub- 
stances their  several  and  proper  characters.  The  term  finish,  when 
applied  to  coloring,  implies  giving  to  the  representations  of  objects  that 
exact  tone  which  the  objects  themselves  possess  in  Nature  under  the  same 
circumstances,  either  by  repeated  glazings  with  transparent  washes,  or  by 
a careful  mixture  of  the  colors  on  the  palette  in  the  first  instance. 


Plate  V.  Fig.  S-  Corregio. 


As  the  principle  of  placing  the  light  at  the  side  of  the  picture  has 
already  been  noticed  at  Plate  III,  I shall,  in  adverting  to  Fig.  3 of  the 
present  plate,  merely  mention  the  color. 

The  principal  light  is  composed  of  the  white  and  blue  garments  of 
Christ,  and  repeated  in  the  sky,  it  being  of  the  same  cool  tint;  the  warm 
light  of  the  angel  makes  the  principal  for  the  head  and  hands  of  Christ, 
and  is  repeated  by  a torch  carried  by  figures  in  the  distance.  So  much 
cold  color  being  admitted  on  the  lights  requires  the  shadows  to  he  kept 
warm,  to  prevent  the  picture  from  looking  heavy ; accordingly  we  find 
Corregio  has  kept  the  darks  of  a rich  brown;  Rembrandt,  who  was  master 
of  this  department  of  art,  when  his  light  is  cool  makes  his  shadows  the 
hotter  the  darker  they  become;  Rubens,  who  formed  his  style  of  coloring 
upon  the  Venetian,  seems  to  have  been  guided  by  the  same  opinion.  In 
one  of  his  maxims  he  says : “Begin  by  painting  in  your  shadows  lightly, 
taking  care  that  no  white  is  suffered  to  glide  into  them;  it  is  the  poison 
of  a picture  exce])t  in  the  lights ; if  ever  your  shadows  are  corrupted  by 
the  introduction  of  this  baneful  color,  your  tones  will  no  longer  he  warm 


I.IGHT  AND  SHADE 


21 


and  transparent,  but  heavy  and  leady.  It  is  not  the  same  in  the  lights, 
they  may  be  loaded  with  color  as  much  as  you  think  proper.”  Whoever 
examines  the  works  of  the  great  colorists  will  find  this  impasting  of  the 
lights,  and  keeping  the  shadows  rich,  juicy  and  transparent  was  their  uni- 
versal practice.  The  original  of  this  subject,  which  is  in  the  possession  of 
the  Duke  of  Wellington,  has  this  character,  as,  indeed,  have  all  the  works 
from  Corregio’s  own  hand.  Opie,  in  his  lectures,  gives  a clear  definition  of 
Corregio’s  management  of  chiaroscuro,  as  follows : 

“By  classing  his  colors  and  judiciously  dividing  them  into  few  and 
large  masses  of  bright  and  obscure,  gently  rounding  off  his  light,  and 
passing,  by  almost  imperceptible  degrees,  through  pellucid  demi-tints  and 
warm  reflexions,  into  broad,  deep  and  transparent  shade ; he  artfully  con- 
nected the  fiercest  extremes  of  light  and  shadow,  harmonized  the  most 
intense  opposition  of  colors,  and  combined  the  greatest  possible  effect  with 
the  sweetest  and  softest  repose  imaginable.” 

Plate  VI,  Fig.  1. 

I have  noticed  in  another  place  that  when  the  darks  of  the  group  are 
brought  off  the  light  side  of  the  background  greater  firmness  is  obtained, 
and  more  vivacity,  which  latter  is  the  peculiar  cliaracter  of  daylight. 
Cuyp,  by  placing  his  figures  in  such  a position  as  to  throw  long  shadows 
across  the  picture,  gives  a great  appearance  of  sunshine.  If  the  strong 
darks  are  placed  on  the  delicate  half-light,  instead  of  on  the  strong  light. 


Plate  VI.  Fig.  i.  Cuyp. 


they  have  greater  force,  as  the  ground  has  a more  retiring  quality;  the 
strong  colors  have  also  a more  natural  appearance,  as  in  the  event  of 
colors  being  opposed  to  the  glare  of  light  their  brilliancy  is  destroyed. 

A few  small  touclies  of  light  are  sufficient  to  convey  the  light  into  the 
dark  side  of  the  picture,  and  to  take  off'  the  heaviness  of  the  shadows.  In 
compositions,  when  the  background  is  very  dark,  we  find  shining  sub- 
stances, sucli  as  mirrors,  metal,  armor,  etc.,  employed,  as  they  take  on  a 
sharp  light,  and  thereby  connect  the  shade  with  the  light  without  destroy- 
ing its  breadth  ; on  the  contrary,  they  add  to  its  depth. 


22 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


Plate  VI,  Fig.  2. 

When  tlie  light  part  of  the  group  is  placed  upon  the  light  side  of  the 
ground,  provided  there  can  be  sufficient  firmness  given,  we  must  of  neces- 
sity have  a greater  breadth  of  effect.  Vandyck  has,  in  this  picture,  kept 
the  principal  light  upon  the  sleeve  of  the  jacket  (w'hich  makes  the  most 
prominent  point),  and  has  diffused  it  upon  the  sky.  The  cool  tints  of  the 
shadows  of  the  jacket  and  part  of  a blue  ribbon  detach  it  from  the  under- 
paid of  the  sky,  which  is  warm.  The  warm  coloring  of  the  boy,  and  the 
cloak  whicli  lie  carries,  and  the  king’s  breeches  being  of  a dull  red,  assist 


Plate  VI.  Fig.  2.  l^andykc. 


the  arrangement.  The  warm  colors  are  carried  into  the  shadow  side  of 
the  picture  by  the  dun  color  of  the  horse,  the  stump  of  the  tree  and  the 
saddle  cloth.  The  cool  blue  of  the  sky  mixes  with  the  foliage  of  the  trees, 
and  prevents  it  from  interfering  with  the  hat,  which  has  greater  point  in 
consequence,  and  balances  the  shadow  side  of  the  picture,  besides  drawing 
the  attention  of  the  spectator  to  the  head.  The  warm  color  of  the  flesh 
necessarily  detaches  itself  from  the  cool  ground;  but  in  such  situations  we 
often  find  Huhens  and  alt  his  pupils  bring  strong  blue  in  contact  with  the 
head,  which  gives  it  a great  value  and  a luminous  effect.  We  thus  perceive 
a light  figure  may  be  strongly  relieved  even  by  a light  background,  provided 
the  colors  are  opposed  to  each  other ; thereby  preserving  the  greatest 
breadth  of  light. 


Plate  VI,  Fig.  3. 

We  have  in  this  subject  the  dark  of  the  group  brought  oft’  the  light 
part  of  the  ground  with  great  firmness,  and  a very  large  portion  of  the  out- 
line sharp  and  cutting,  which,  though  it  may  give  the  strong  feature  of 
natural  objects,  has  a harsh  appearance  at  first  sight.  Whether  it  be  that 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


23 


in  real  objects  their  actual  existence  enables  tbein  to  harnionize  with  the 
harshest  effects  of  light  and  shade;  or  that  the  I'eal  separation  of  one  part 
from  anotlier,  admits  of  a strength  of  color  incompatible  with  a flat  sur- 
face, such  as  an  outline  on  canvas,  is  worthy  of  the  student’s  examination  ; 
as  in  Nature  he  will  often  find  the  most  distant  parts  of  an  object  more 
sharp  and  cutting  than  the  nearest  outlines,  and  yet  keej)  their  situation. 
To  represent  this  on  canvas  requires  the  most  scientific  management ; as 
a work  may  have  tlie  strength  and  freshness  of  Nature,  without  being  a 
just  representation,  when  the  situation  of  one  part  with  regard  to  another 
is  taken  into  the  account. 


Plate  VI.  Fig.  s.  P.  Potter. 


Potter  in  this  picture  (in  whicli  the  objects  are  of  tlie  natural  size) 
lias  made  use  of  the  simplest  and  firmest  principles,  as  regards  light  and 
shade.  We  have  the  group  strongly  defined  by  part  of  it  coming  liglit 
off'  a dark  ground,  and  dark  off  a light  one;  we  have  the  composition  taking 
a decided  form  in  one  direction,  and  the  light  running  across  it  in  another; 
we  have  therefore  the  strong  look  of  Nature,  which  consists  of  simplicity, 
decision,  and  strength. 

In  the  early  masters  we  have  these  qualities  often  in  a high  degree ; 
and  had  they  loss  of  an  inlaid  flat  appearance,  would  lie  more  valuable  than 
the  more  harmonious  softenings  of  modern  light  and  shade ; hut  we  must 
never  forget  that  objects  in  Nature  are  more  or  less  round,  that  they  are 
delicate  as  well  as  forcible,  and  that  the  harshest  colors  are  under  the  in- 
fluence of  light  and  shade. 

Plate  ^T,  Fig.  d. 

d'he  light  part  of  the  groiqi  is  here  brought  in  contact  with  the  light 
part  of  the  background,  and  the  shadow  assisted  in  its  strength  by  the 
local  colors  of  the  objects  placed  within  it.  The  yellow  cow,  which  makes 
the  light,  is  surrounded  by  others  of  a dull  red  and  brown,  ivbicb  are 
relieved  by  a still  diarker  ground.  This  gives  a great  breadth  to  the  group. 
The  cool  color  of  the  iqiper  part  of  the  sky  is  carried  across  the  picture 


24 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


by  the  grass  and  leaves  being  of  a cool  green ; the  dark  sharp  marking  of 
the  horns,  eyes,  etc.,  gives  a lightness  and  finish  to  the  whole,  as  it  allows 
the  broad  lights  and  shadows  to  have  more  union.  In  Cuyp  the  local  color 


Plate  VI.  Fig.  4.  Cuyp. 


of  his  objects,  whether  hot  or  cold,  is  kept  up  undisturbed  by  the  light 
and  shade ; this  gives  great  breadth  and  the  distinctness  of  Nature  in  open 
daylight. 

Plate  VI,  Fig.  .'5. 

In  tliis  subject  we  have  the  light  figure  upon  the  dark  ground,  and 
vice  versa.  In  Nature  we  often  perceive  strong  effects  arising  out  of  simple 
and  decided  principles,  which,  if  sketched  at  the  time,  will  be  of  the  utmost 
value  to  the  student,  by  giving  him  an  insight  into  the  science  of  light  and 
shade;  and  will  often  serve  as  a key  to  commence  with  in  forming  larger 


Plate  F/.  Fiy.  5. 


combinations.  Reynolds  mentions  a mode  of  composing  by  taking  a figure 
from  some  celebrated  master,  and  designing  others  to  correspond  with  it ; 
thereby  imparting  a grandeur  of  style  to  the  whole.  So,  by  commencing 
with  somctliing  sketched  from  Nature,  we  give  a decided  look  of  truth  to 
tlie  other  parts  of  the  picture. 


I.IGHT  ANJJ  SHADE 


25 


Many  painters  model  their  groups  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a true 
representation  of  the  light  and  shade.  Small  figures,  however  rude  in  form, 
will  serve  this  purpose,  and  give  the  artist  many  invaluable  hints. 

Tintoretto  and  Corregio,  both  great  masters  of  chiaroscuro,  are  known 
to  have  availed  themselves  of  this  method ; and  the  student  must  have  a 
most  erroneous  idea  of  his  art  who  imagines  excellence  can  be  obtained 
without  the  assistance  of  every  auxiliary.  The  most  teamed  arrangements 
of  light  and  shade  may  astonish,  but  there  is  a chann  in  the  chairoscuro  of 
Nature  which  carries  irresistible  sway. 

Plate  VI,  Peg.  6. 

In  this  subject  we  have  the  dark  group  brouglit  off  the  light  shade  of 
the  background  in  the  simplest  and  most  decided  manner ; and  the  principles 
of  light  and  shade  made  applicable  to  giving  the  strong  look  of  Nature, 
viz. : breadth  and  solidity  to  the  ground,  and  light  and  extent  to  the  sky. 
Rembrandt  has  often  been  accused  of  being  artificial  in  his  effects,  hut  he 
never  misses  his  aim,  either  in  representing  the  splendid  emanations  of  light, 
or  the  quiet  depths  of  shadow;  the  peculiar  character  of  an  object,  either 
in  texture  or  in  color,  and  that  appearance  familiar  to  the  recollection  of 
every  one;  but  to  convey  whicli,  either  in  poetry  or  in  painting,  is  only 
in  the  power  of  a few. 


Plate  VI.  Fig.  6.  Rembrandt. 


Rembrandt  seems  always  to  have  taken  up  a leading  feature  in  his 
works,  and  never  to  haA^e  lost  sight  of  it.  The  varieties  in  his  prints  are  but 
corroborations  of  this ; as  in  his  anxiety  for  its  preseiwation  we  trace  him 
destroying  every  impediment,  either  by  covering  doAvn  or  burying  whole 
groups  in  shadow,  or  by  leaving  in  an  unfinished  state  otlier  groups,  wdth 
a mere  outline  to  define  them.  For  example,  if  we  take  the  first  state  of 
the  print  of  the  great  “Ecce  Homo,”  we  perceive  he  has  made  Christ  in 
the  center  of  a group,  in  a quiet  broad  mass  of  light,  Avith  the  strong  darks 
gradating  from  him,  right  and  left,  and  surrounded  by  masses  of  half-tint. 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


He  has  then  etched  in  the  principal  group,  commencing  with  the  figure 
addressing  the  multitude,  and  terminating  with  the  right  hand  of  Pilate. 
This  portion  being  in  strong  light,  interspersed  with  a variety  of  strong 
darks,  acquires  by  this  means  great  brilliancy  and  agitation.  We  have, 
therefore,  the  quiet  character  of  Clirist  preserved,  and  his  superiority  main- 
tained, by  his  forming  the  center  of  one  group  and  the  apex  of  the  other, 
rising,  as  Fuseli  describes  it,  “like  a pyramid  from  the  tumultuous  waves 
below.” 

If  we  take  his  print  of  the  “Angels  Appearing  to  the  Sliepherds,”  in 
the  first  state  we  find  a broad  mass  of  shadow  running  through  the  center 
in  a diagonal  line,  thus  giving  it  its  greatest  magnitude.  In  the  upper 
part  is  preserved  tlie  principal  light,  radiating  from  a center,  with  a multi- 
tude of  children  sporting  in  its  beams,  and  out  of  which  tlie  angel  addresses 
the  shepherds  across  tliis  gulf  of  shadow.  The  second  light,  which  is  in 
the  lower  portion  of  the  print,  he  lias,  in  the  next  state,  cut  up  by  a number 
of  darks  and  lights,  irregularly  dispersed,  thus  conveying  the  appearance 
of  confusion  and  terror  to  the  shepherds,  tlieir  herds  and  fiocks,  which  are 
represented  fiying  in  all  directions.  Tliese  two  examples  out  of  many,  which 
the  student  will  discover  by  his  own  examination,  will  suffice  to  show  that 
light  and  shade  may  he  made  to  contribute  to  the  character  and  fitness  of 
the  subject,  and  tliat  of  this  adaptation  of  it,  Rcmlirandt  holds  unrivalled 
possession. 

Plate  VII. 

When  a picture  is  chiefly  composed  of  light  and  half-tint,  the  darks 
of  the  figures  must  necessarily  tell  with  great  force,  from  their  being  so 
little  of  half-shade  to  rob  tliem  of  their  value;  the  mid-day  sun  filling  with 
intense  light  every  particle  of  the  atmosphere  gives  tliat  luminous  appear- 


Platc  VII.  Fig.  i.  -I.  Vandivclde. 

ance,  which  is  so  strongly  characteristic  of  an  out-of-door  effect,  the  dark 
local  colors  of  the  figures,  fi’om  tlie  absorption  of  the  rays,  retain  undimin- 
ished power,  and  give  that  firmness  and  vivacity  to  the  scene  which  prevents 
it  from  looking  feeble.  In  Nature,  figures,  from  their  upright  position,  have 
a greater  conseciuence  from  the  flat  shadows  being  weakened  by  the  light 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


27 


of  the  sky  falling  into  them ; for,  seeing  that  the  whole  heavens  are  filled 
with  light,  it  is  showered  down  and  reflected  in  all  directions.  Also,  from 
their  being  in  motion,  they  attract  the  eye ; a circumstance  to  he  noticed  by 
the  artist,  who  has  to  give  them  their  relative  value  on  canvas,  as  they 
possess  in  reality.  The  consideration  of  all  tlicsc  circumstances  influences 


many  painters  in  giving  the  darks  the  full  force  of  the  palette.  As  a gen- 
eral character  and  the  leading  features  of  strong  daylight  are  to  he  pur- 
chased at  any  sacrifice,  critics  who  do  not  sufficiently  investigate  these 
matters  may  complain  of  want  of  air,  but  the  student,  by  a close  attention 
to  the  subject,  will  not  easily  be  scared  liy  the  cry  of  “sans  vapeur.” 

Birds  in  the  air,  l)oats  on  the  water,  figures  on  the  sands,  cornfields, 
or  light  roads,  have  all  this  characteristic  feature  in  a high  degree,  from 
the  middle-tint  being  on  so  light  a key. 


Plate  VII.  Fig. 


A.  Vandivelde. 


Plate  VII.  Fig.  5.  Claude. 

Cuyp  often  accomplishes  this  by  the  general  tone  of  the  picture  being 
varm,  and  his  shadows  lirownish,  thereby  allowing  his  blue  draperies  and 
cool  blacks  to  have  greater  point.  P.  Veronese  and  Rubens  have  many  pic- 
tures on  the  same  principle. 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


28 

Opposition  of  color  is  of  great  importance  in  the  treatment  of  pictures 
on  a liglit  key,  as  it  gives  great  relief  and  distinctness  without  cutting  up 
the  breadth  of  light ; such  as  blue  upon  a warm  ground,  or  red  upon  a cool 
one,  bright  yellow  upon  a cool  gray,  etc.  In  No.  3,  Claude  has  made  great 
use  of  such  opposition.  The  general  appearance  of  the  picture  is  warm, 
the  dark  blue  of  the  water  is  carried  across  the  piece  by  tbe  dark  blue 
draperies  of  some  of  the  figures,  and  is  suffused  upon  the  upper  part  of 
the  sky.  The  red  is  interspersed  upon  the  boats  and  the  draperies  of  the 
other  figures ; and,  warming  the  near  part  of  the  buildings,  is  repeated  at 
the  top  by  a figure  looking  over  the  balcony  and  two  red  flags  upon  the 
blue  of  the  sky.  He  has  placed  t\vo  blue  flags  upon  the  w'arm  part  of  the 
sky  to  repeat  the  cool  color. 

Pictures  painted  on  a dark  key  have  already  been  noticed  as  possessing 
many  advantages,  which  have  led  our  greatest  colorists  to  its  adoption. 
But  as  low-toned  pictures  are  apt  to  look  heavy  and  black,  unless  richness 
of  shadows,  or  sharpness  of  lights  be  preserved,  so  pictures  painted  on  a 
light  key  are  apt  to  look  flat  and  unfinished  unless  the  greatest  circum- 


Plate  J’ll.  Fig.  4.  J.  Ostade. 


spection  be  used.  In  Nature,  the  intense  light  of  the  sky,  and  the  atmos- 
phere, which  is  filled  with  its  innumerable  refractions,  spread  a luminous 
cbaracter  over  the  whole  scene;  to  represent  which  the  artist  can  employ 
only  a greater  degree  of  whiteness,  a very  inadequate  quality,  and  hence 
the  great  difficulty  of  imitating  the  splendid  brightness  of  midda\"  or  the 
brilliant  effects  of  an  evening  sky.  In  treating  the  one,  unless  the  delicate 
varieties  of  the  half-lights  are  attended  to  with  the  greatest  care,  the  pic- 
ture will  look  crude  and  unfinished ; for  the  tints  being  so  nearly  allied  to 
each  other,  the  exact  sharpness  to  define  them,  and  their  exact  tone,  either 
by  repeated  scumbling  or  mixing  them  to  the  proper  tint  in  the  first 
instance,  require  an  attention  and  study  of  tlie  most  refined  quality,  without 
which  the  shadows  will  be  powdery  instead  of  pearly,  or  the  lights  white 
instead  of  luminous.  In  the  other  arrangement  the  yellow  tones  may  become 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


29 


solid  and  foxy,  if  deprived  of  the  delicate  cool  tints  so  necessary  to  prevent 
their  appearing  too  hot,  and  to  give  the  whole  that  tremulous  unsteady 
appearance  which  light  possesses  in  Nature. 

Tdght  pictures,  from  the  tenderness  of  their  light  and  shade,  require 
the  colors  opposed  to  each  other,  whether  blue  opposed  to  red,  or  yellow  to 
cool  gray,  to  be  managed  with  tlie  greatest  delicacy ; otherwise  their  strength 


Plate  VII.  Fig.  3.  Ciiyp. 


will  destroy  all  appearance  of  light  and  air.  In  light  pictures  strong  colors 
can  stand  only  as  middle-tint,  or  for  leading  the  light  into  the  shade,  but 
can  ajipear  as  lights  only  by  being  relieved  by  strong  shadow.  We  often 
find  them,  as  in  P.  ^^cronese,  etc.,  standing  as  darks,  or  made  use  of  to  give 
objects  an  appearance  of  solidity,  without  breaking  up  the  general  mass 
of  light  in  the  picture. 


Plate  VIII.. 

P::  ^ 

• • ••  • •••  ^ 

I shall  here  recuf  tp  ytuc.  Atibje'cf  • "df  * Iniddle-tint  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  a general  view  of  the  various  modes  of  arrsinging  this  important 
branch  of  light  and  shade;  as  upon  the  strength  of  the  middle-tint  depends. 


Plate  VIII.  Fig.  i. 


Hondekooter. 


30 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


in  a great  measure,  the  general  look  of  the  picture.  By  the  middle-tint  is 
meant  tlie  medium  between  the  extreme  dark  and  extreme  light ; but  as  such 
a scale  is  too  gross  to  take  in  all  the  gradations  lying  between  so  opposite 
qualities,  I liaA^e,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  made  use  of  intennediate  links, 
viz. : half-dark  and  half-light.  If  we  take  a ground  of  a shade  composed 
chiefly  of  half-dark  and  middle-tint,  and  introduce  the  strongest  lights,  we 
shall  find  it  necessary  to  introduce  a portion  of  half-lights  to  spread  and 
break  down  their  harshness.  If  the  extreme  dark  is  placed  upon  the  middle- 
tint  it  will,  by  contrast,  render  it  more  in  union  with  the  half-light;  if  it 
he  placed  on  the  half-dark,  a breadth  of  shadow'  and  softness  will  be  the 
result.  Harshness  of  effect  in  treating  pictures  upon  a dark  scale  arises, 
most  commonly,  from  the  want  of  sufficient  quantities  of  middle-tint  and 
half-light,  thereby  causing  the  principal  light  to  be  too  much  defined,  as 
we  frequently  observe  in  the  works  of  iMichael  Angelo  Caravaggio. 


Plate  VIII.  Fig.  2.  Wouverthdns. 

Rembrandt  and  Corregio  excelled  all  others  in  the  introduction  of 
demi-tints,  which  illuminate  their  deepest  shadows.  In  their  works  and  in 
Nature  we  perceive  the  lowest  tones  of  middle-tint  are  removed  from  black- 
ness, either  by  their  warmth  or  the  introduction  of  some  positive  black  or 
blue,  to  produce  an  apyiearance  of  air  floating  within  them. 

d’hc  exact  (piantity  of  middle-tint  must  depend  upon  the  arrangement 
of  the  subject  and  the  taste  of  the  painter,  but  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  prevent  it  from  always  interposing  between  the  extreme  light  and  extreme 
dark. 

d'his  invariably  gradual  declination  of  the  light  into  the  shadow  is  one 
cause  of  the  insipid  look  of  most  of  Vanderwerf’s  works,  nor  is  it,  as  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds  justly  observes,  consonant  with  the  effects  in  Nature. 
Variety  demands  some  portion  of  the  composition  to  be  sharj)  and  cutting; 
and  richness  is  to  be  obtained  only  by  a continual  changing  of  portions 
coming  sometimes  dark  and  sometimes  light  off  the  ground ; this  endless 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


31 


variety  in  Nature  can  be  imitated  only  by  tliis  intricate  weaving  of  the  out- 
line witli  tlie  background;  so  tliat  the  same  sound  principles  which  guide 
the  conduct  in  the  treatment  of  the  whole  may  be  traced  in  the  management 
of  the  detail. 

Middle-tint,  in  pictures  painted  on  a light  key,  ought  to  be  in  some 
measure  robbed  of  its  consequence,  either  by  the  Introduction  of  reflected 
lights  or  positive  half-lights ; for  if  it  occupies  too  large  a portion  of  the 
canvas  the  work  must  of  necessity  lose  its  characteristic  feature.  We  must, 
therefore,  depend  upon  some  other  agent  to  prevent  the  picture  being  flimsy, 
and  void  of  that  solidity  which  is  so  inherent  in  the  most  deliacte  of  Nature’s 
works.  Accordingly  we  find  small  sharp  darks  introduced,  the  value  of 
which  has  been  noticed  in  another  place,  and  ( what  is  of  the  utmost 
importance)  a sharp  edge  to  the  lights  and  half  shadows  throughout  the 
whole. 

The  light  pictures  of  Teniers  and  C.'uyp  are  full  of  this  precision  in 
the  touch,  a flatness  in  the  shades,  a sharpness  in  the  handling  and  a dis- 
tinctness in  the  most  approximate  colors;  by  this  alone  a general  breadth 
can  be  preserved,  and  the  most  splendid  light  (even  of  a sky)  filled  with 
a multitude  of  forms. 


Plate  VIII.  Fig. 


Teniers. 


In  this  notice  of  middle-tint  or  ground  of  the  picture  1 may  appear  to 
have  recapitulated  what  has  already  been  said  in  other  parts  of  the  work, 
but  my  anxiety  to  put  the  student  in  possession  of  every  information  in 
my  power  urges  me  to  place  it  before  his  eyes  in  every  point  of  view. 

ddie  management  of  light  and  shade,  as  I’elates  to  a whole,  ought  to  be 
always  present  in  the  student’s  mind,  as  it  is  from  inattention  to  this  alone 
that  a work  is  often  destroyed  in  its  progress.  In  the  commencement  of  a 
picture  those  parts  only  are  strongly  defined,  or  marked  in,  which  are  of 
the  greatest  importance,  and  the  other  portions  are  left  in  a broader  and 


32 


PRACTICAL  HINTS  ON 


less  obtrusive  state.  But  in  the  progress  of  the  work  the  proper  subordi- 
nation of  the  latter  is  often  injuriously  diminished. 

The  general  character  of  an  object  is  its  most  important  feature,  and 
this  is  to  be  preserved  at  the  price  of  every  other  quality,  if  it  cannot  be 
retained  upon  other  terms  ; as  it  is  this  which  is  imprinted  on  the  mind  of 
every  one,  and  which  is,  therefore,  paramount  to  all  its  other  properties. 
If  the  object  does  not  possess  this  feature  upon  the  canvas  it  cannot 
attract  or  interest  the  spectator,  as  in  all  probability  its  other  properties 
are  unveiled  except  to  the  artist  alone,  who  has  examined  it  attentively. 
For  example,  in  a portrait,  when  we  see  the  head  alone  finished,  it  often 
pleases  more  than  when  the  work  is  complete ; our  attention  is  led  involun- 
tarily to  the  countenance,  which  would  be  the  case  were  we  introduced  to 
the  original;  and  this  preponderance,  which  exists  in  Nature,  must  of  neces- 
sity become  less  when  in  the  finished  work  the  other  portions  of  the  picture 
have  received  a greater  consequence.  The  importance  of  the  countenance, 
the  general  character  of  the  flesh,  viz. : its  transparency,  breadth  of  local 


Plate  VIII.  Fig.  4. 


color,  luminous  appearance,  etc.,  may  be  all  lost  from  the  injudicious 
introduction,  in  the  other  parts  of  the  picture,  of  lights,  darks  and  middle- 
tints,  in  the  artist’s  anxiety  for  richness  of  effect,  or  in  his  wish  to  give 
splendor  and  harmony  by  the  strength  or  variety  of  his  colors. 

In  sketching  a landscape  from  Nature,  when  we  have  time  only  to  put 
down  the  leading  features,  detailing  such  objects  alone  as  are  striking  or 
interesting,  we  find  the  spectator  often  more  satisfied  from  feeling  a corre- 
sponding sensation  from  the  truth  of  the  representation  imprinted  on  his 
mind  than  when,  in  a more  finished  work,  the  painter  has  destroyed  the  great 
breadth  and  luminous  character  of  the  sky  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  the 
shadows  of  the  clouds  with  the  trees,  etc.,  to  counteract  flatness,  or  when 
he  lias  subdued  the  strength  of  his  colors  for  the  sake  of  taking  off  their 
harshness.  When  he  begins  to  define  the  different  parts  for  the  sake  of 
finish,  unless  he  has  the  treatment  of  the  picture  as  a whole  constantly  before 
his  eye,  the  expansive  look  of  the  sky,  the  fresh  and  decided  appearance  of 
Nature  in  the  colors,  the  gray  tones  and  softmarkings  of  the  aerial  per- 
spective may  all  disappear,  and  give  yilace  to  requisites  of  an  inferior  kind. 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE 


33 


In  all  objects  in  Nature  there  is  something  predominant,  and  which 
alone  has  struck  the  observation  of  every  one.  If  the  artist  gives  that  he 
brings  his  object  at  once  home  “to  men’s  bosoms,”  and  without  which  his 
greatest  labor  is  but  industrious  trifling.  The  character  of  an  object  de- 
pends upon  a particular  color,  a particular  touch,  a pax-ticular  concentration 
or  diffusion  of  light,  according  to  its  form  or  substance ; to  obtain  which 
ought  to  be  the  constant  study  of  the  student,  as  it  is  the  language  of  his 
art,  and  the  only  language  universally  understood. 

I have  in  these  brief  notices  of  the  art  of  light  and  shade  endeavored 
to  point  out  the  various  modes  of  establishing  a scientific  arrangement  of 
its  powers,  and  applying  them  to  any  subject  the  student  may  have  in 
hand.  The  changes  are  infinite ; but,  by  an  attentive  examination  of  the 
effects  in  Nature  or  in  art,  he  will  find  the  sources  from  which  they  arise 


Plate  J^T7I.  Fig.  5,  Frank  Hals. 

few  and  simple.  Opie,  in  his  lectures,  speaking  of  chiaroscuro,  strongly 
recommends  the  study  of  the  several  masters  who  liave  excelled  in  this 
department  of  the  art:  “By  studying  the  works  of  tlie  great  masters  of 
chiaroscuro  he  will,  by  degrees,  become  acquainted  with  all  the  artifices  of 
contrasting  light  to  sliade,  color  to  color,  to  produce  relievo,  of  joining 
light  objects  together,  and  dark  objects  together,  in  masses,  in  order  to 
give  splendor  and  breadth  of  effect;  of  gradually  sinking  some  objects 
wholly  or  partly  in  shadow,  and  losing  their  outlines  in  the  ground,  to  pro- 
duce softness  and  harmony;  and  of  making,  in  other  places,  abrupt  breaks 
and  sharp  transitions,  to  produce  vivacity  and  spirit.  He  will  also  learn 
their  rules  for  shaping  their  masses,  and  of  adapting  them  in  regard  to 
force  or  softness  to  the  nature  of  the  subject,  whether  grave  or  gay,  sul)- 
lime  or  terrible.  By  this  he  must  be  directed  when  to  give  his  light  the 
form  of  a globe,  or  when  to  send  it  in  a stream  across  his  canvas  ; when 
to  make  a dark  mass  on  a light  ground,  or  a light  mass  on  a dark  ground ; 
when  he  may  let  his  light  die  away  by  imperceptible  gradations,  when 
diffuse  it  in  greater  breadth  and  abundance,  and  when  it  may  more  properlv 


34 


be  concentrated  into  one  vivid  flash.”  This  is  so  excellent,  and  embraces 
so  many  of  the  best  modes  of  the  management  of  light  and  shade,  that  the 
student,  wlio  can  comprehend  them  and  put  them  in  practice,  requires  no 
farther  instruction  in  this  part  of  the  art.  He  will  be  in  possession  of  a 
key  to  unlock  the  richest  stores  of  Nature;  he  will  be  in  possession  of  a sort 
of  shorthand  to  note  down  her  most  fleeting  effects  ; and  by  understanding 
the  cause  which  gives  them  existence,  rivet  them  in  his  memory.  Without 
having  accustomed  himself  to  this  mode  of  arranging  his  observations  his 
life  will  be  spent  in  an  endless  search  after  that  which  is  continually  passing 
before  his  eyes. 

Light  and  shade,  considered  as  a means  of  producing  a deception,  by 
making  parts  of  the  picture  advance,  and  other  parts  retire,  so  that  every- 
thing may  keep  its  relative  situation,  as  regards  tlie  distance  from  the 
spectator,  is  a necessary  attendant  upon  perspective.  It  is,  however,  often 
violated  in  the  best  works,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a general  breadth,  or 


Plate  VIII.  Fig.  6.  Titian. 


of  preserving  tlie  light  in  a good  shape;  but,  when  compatible  with  both  of 
these,  it  is  of  the  utmost  consequence;  and  the  painter  can  enter  into  a 
competition  with  Nature  only  by  a perfect  knowledge  of  the  best  modes  of 
adapting  it  to  such  purpose. 

Richness  of  effect,  either  by  a mixture  of  the  light  and  shade,  so  as  to 
give  an  appearance  of  doubling  to  tlie  outline,  or  by  relieving  the  outline 
by  a ground  possessed  of  a variety  of  strengths  and  distinctness  of  form, 
surrounded  by  flatness,  when  we  wish  any  part  to  attract  notice,  or  to  pre- 
serve the  expression  undisturbed,  are  both  under  the  dominion  of  chiaroscuro, 
to  whose  control  tlie  whole  army  of  colors  yields  implicit  obedience. 

4'he  application  of  light  and  shade,  in  a poetical  point  of  view,  is 
capable  of  creating  an  association  of  ideas,  without  which  the  imagination 
of  the  spectator  would  experience  nothing  but  disappointment.  For  example, 
if  we  represent  a scene  remarkable  for  disasters  or  shipwrecks,  the  mind  is 
excited,  and  an  expectation  raised,  which  none  but  an  artist  imbued  with 


;35 


the  poetry  of  the  art  can  gratify,  by  clothing  tlie  scene  in  all  the  ominous 
effects  of  elemental  strife;  whether  the  shadow 

“Strangles  the  traveling  lamp: 

That  darkness  doth  the  face  of  earth  entomb, 

When  living  light  should  kiss  it?” 
or 

“The  sky  seems  to  pour  down  stinking  pitch. 

Hut  that  the  sea,  mounting  to  the  welkin’s  cheek. 

Dashes  the  fire  out.” 


Shakespeare,  who  was  possessed  of  all  the  ])oetry  of  the  art,  clothes 
his  scenery  with  those  circumstances  which  awaken  a thousand  pleasing  or 
awful  sensations  as  the  subject  may  retpiire;  whether 


Whether 


or  when 


“The  gray-eyed  morn  smiles  on  the  frowning  night. 
Checkering  the  eastern  clouds  with  streaks  of  light.” 

“The  glorious  sun 

Stays  in  his  course  and  plays  the  alchemist; 
Turning  with  splendor  of  his  precious  eye 
d’he  meagre  cloddy  earth  to  glitte  ring  gold.” 

“Light  thickens  ; and  the  crow 
INIakes  wing  to  the  rooky  wood.” 


or  when  he  bids 

“Thick  night 

Hall  herself  in  the  dunnest  smoke  of  hell.” 


We  have  him  adopting  the  softness  and  breadth  of  Corregio,  the 
splendor  and  gorgeous  effects  of  Veronese,  Rubens  or  Cuyp,  or  the  ominous 
twilight  and  midnight  darkness  of  Rembrandt  or  iMichacl  Angelo  Cara- 
vaggio. His  light  and  shade  is  the  chiaroscuro  of  Nature  passing  through 
a mind  susceptible  of  its  finest  impressions,  and  capable  of  placing  such 
effects  before  the  eye  of  the  spectator,  “unshorn  of  their  beams,” 
paired  in  their  sublimity. 


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